Auditing and Assurance Notes Essay

Week 1 Purpose of audit – enhance the degree of confidence of intended users in the financial report. Expression of an opinion by the auditor on whether – the FR is prepared, in all material respects, in accordance with applicable financial reporting framework. Opinion – whether the FR is presented fairly, in all material aspects, give a true and fair view in accordance with the framework. ASA require auditor to exercise professional judgment and maintain professional skepticism throughout the planning and performance of the audit to Identify and assess risk of material misstatement, whether due to fraud or error, based on an understanding of the entity and its environment, including the entity’s internal control. Obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence about whether material misstatement exist, through designing and implementing appropriate responses to the assessed risks. Audit process (planning, audit evidence, audit reporting) 1. Planning Understanding the business and determining risk Assessment of the internal controls Determining ‘significant risks’ for which special audit attention needs to be focused 2. Evidence gathering Tests of controls Substantive tests 3. Formation of the audit opinion Planning Risk identification what approaches/ procedure the auditor needs to adopt to reduce audit risk. Plan- so that audit will be performed in an effective manner. Key engagement team members in the planning  appropriate quality control procedures Consideration of comparisons of the entity’s financial information: Comparable information for prior periods  Anticipated results of the entity  Similar industry information Audit Risk- the risk of material misstatement of financial report Assertion level Inherent Risk (IR)  the susceptibility (æ„Ÿå â€"æ€ §) of an assertion(ä ¸ »Ã¥ ¼  ) to material misstatement, assuming there are no related controls, IR factors are generally business risks (BR) affecting a specific account assertion. Control Risk (CR) the risk of an assertion being materially misstated because controls will not prevent, or detect and correct errors on a timely basis. CR is the impact of the presence or absence of effective internal control designed to mitigate entity’s business risk Detection Risk (DR) the risk that the auditor will not detect the material misstatement. Can be reduced by proper planning, assignment of staff, professional scepticism (çâ€"‘éâ€" ®), supervision and review Planning Materiality ASA320 Materiality – no specific criteria for determining materiality, but rather considers it a matter of professional judgement. Determining materiality for planning- 2 stages 1. An appropriate benchmark need to be chosen 2. Risk assessment based on auditor’s knowledge of client’s business

Sentence and Verbal Communication

3. 1 Work File ReviewDetour for Effective Verbal CommunicationDirections: Review the sentences below. Practice writing the sentences into â€Å"I† statements by using the â€Å"I† statement patterns provided below. After you feel confident you understand the concept of â€Å"I† statements, proceed to the assignment area and take the 3. 1 Effect Verbal Communication online quiz. Please use black ink. â€Å"I† Statement Patterns I feel†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ when you†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. because I†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. I think†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. when you†¦. because II need†¦. for you†¦. because IExample:A. â€Å"You† had better not cheat on that test! † (â€Å"You† statement)B. I feel angry when you cheat because I have to work hard for my grades. (â€Å"I† statement)1. â€Å"You always interrupt me! † I feel ____________________when you interrupt me, because I_________________.2. â€Å"You won't listen to me, because you are always talking on the phone with her! † I think ______________when you are always talking on the phone with her, because I ______________________________.3. â€Å"You'd better straighten up or you'll be looking for someone else to date! † I feel ________________________________when you act that way because I ________________.4. â€Å"You are always telling me that I never clean my room, but I do clean it! † I need for you to ________________________because I____________________.5. â€Å"You never let me go out with my friends, Mom! † I think __________________when you won’t allow me to go with my friends, because I ___________________.6. â€Å"You never seem to listen to me. I'm trying to tell you about my day in school and all you do is watch TV. Why can't you ever pay any attention to me? † I feel ________________when you watch TV, because I ______________________.7. â€Å"You are always late for practice. † I need for you to ______________________, because I ______________________.8. â€Å"You must let me use the car Saturday night, Dad! † I need __________________, because I___________________.

Adult Learners in Higher Education and Training Essay

Adult Learners in Higher Education and Training - Essay Example Therefore, contract learning aims at assigning more learning input from student rather than making learning teacher centered. Knowles further notes that the use of contract learning will help solve some learning problems by reducing the wide different gap between different learning groups among the adult learners. The essence of the learning contract is because learning institutions often receive people or learners from different backgrounds, with varied interest, previous experiences, lifestyle, learning styles, learning speeds, and outside commitments. Knowles noted that didactic is the sure way to all these interests since this teaching will aim at the middle (Knowles, 1986). Notably, concentrating at the middle will pull students at the lower end towards the middle so that they are not left far behind and those at the top will not be extremely bored. The contract learning is to assist student structure their own learning towards meeting the learning or educational needs (Knowles, 1995). Developing learning contract often requires a sense of cognitive and personal learning styles. There is also need for the teacher to diagnose his or her personal learning needs in relation to what the students need. This will also help in projecting the expectation at the end of the learning contract. Finally, there is a need for the teacher for formulate specific objects to be accomplished after the learning contract. Knowles, M. S. (1995).  Designs for adult learning: Practical resources, exercises, and course outlines from the father of adult learning. Alexandria, VA: American Society for Training and Development

U03d1 Health Care Perceptions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

U03d1 Health Care Perceptions - Essay Example Second are long term debts, where the maturity of the debt is longer than one year. Both these debts are equally risky as well as have the advantages and disadvantages (Zelman, McCue, & Glick, 2009). Considering the long term debts, it is essential to note that there are two primary models that are present, one where the debt is a term loan and second where the debt is a public offering mostly in the form of bonds. The health care industry has a mixture of debts which can be used to meet the needs of an optimal investment; it is essential to note that a more diversified portfolio proves to be very beneficial for the industry and can in a number of ways increase the anticipation of an investment. It is also important to note that the investments are not always accurate and the growth is not easily measurable. In the case of banks, it is possible to determine the financial situation using the debt to equity ratio, however considering the health care industry this can be a little risky and the outcome and overall organization can be difficult to manage. There is a high level of risk that is involved in the risk of borrowing and debt when compared to the risk of equity. Also as explained by Moore (2009), there is a high level of interest rates that need to be considered and these have to a great extent impacted a number of people across the world, leaving them defaulting on the loans. Considering the health care industry and the consumers, it is definite that the hospital finances are not found. Also considering the hospitals, it is important to note that the debt related issues is a very unconventional problem. The chances for the health care industry to be faced with high levels of debt ratio (Abel, et.al., 2009). There are a number of different opinions and ideas that the customers have about the financial condition of the health care industry and the consumers in most cases will not get a true peek into the financial condition of the organizations.

Current Events and U.S. Diplomacy Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Current Events and U.S. Diplomacy - Assignment Example The means used to fight include the media propaganda, Soviet propaganda, American propaganda and space race. The essay is going to define the presidential doctrine and summarize the global events during the Cold War leading to the formation of the presidential doctrine and describe the Cold War relationship that existed between Korea and the U.S before the presidential doctrine was announced. The paper will also describe the effects that the presidential doctrine has on the global affairs since it was announced during the Cold War and assess whether or not the presidential doctrine had the intended effect of altering the behavior of the Korea since the doctrine was first announced. Colucci (2012) stated that a presidential doctrine comprises of attitudes and key goals outlined by the president of a nation and most of the doctrines are related to the cold war. The global event that led to the formation of the presidential doctrine is the attack on Egypt by Israeli, British and French military forces because Gamal Nasser the Egyptian leader had taken hold of the Suez Canal. Watson (2003) stated that the Unite States of America withdrew their support in the construction of the Aswan Dam on the Nile River because of Nasser’s anti- Western nationalism and his close relationship with the Soviet Union. In response to the war that was happening in Egypt, President Dwight Eisenhower asked for authorization to start new programs of military and economic cooperation with friendly nations around the region. President Eisenhower also requested for the use of U.S troops to protect and secure the political independence and territorial integrity of nations that were fr iendly in the region. Lee (2013) stated that House of Representatives and the United States Senate supported the proposal of Eisenhower although some individuals were not happy with the open-ended policy for American action in the Middle

Business Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Business Law - Essay Example This can be done through the name and address certification of the agent who is resident in the state. The company can also certify the name, address of the agent in the state, and acquire a certification of satisfactory standing from the concerned state or county where the business s set up. The advantage of using a branch is that there are no legal formalities associated with setting up a business and the only requirement is the qualifications to carry on business. A disadvantage of this approach is that, in case of liabilities by the activities of the branch office, the exposure of the assets of the parent company to such liabilities is not avoidable. A foreign company can also use a subsidiary in the U.S to carry on its business and carry on its operations. The subsidiary must be organized through the relevant legislation of the state the subsidiary operates in. The major advantage of operating through a subsidiary is that, in case of a liability, only the assets of the subsidiar y are at risk and not the parent foreign company assets. The other advantage of a subsidiary is that the formation of a subsidiary in the U.S enables the clarification of the portion of income subjected to either foreign or U.s taxation. The use of a subsidiary also limits the liability of the shareholders, directors and officers of the corporation in terms of liability in terms of the debts of the corporation. It is more convenient to use a subsidiary than to open a branch of the company as most benefits and advantages lie in the use of a subsidiary. The employing of the new federal imposed tax on branch profits brings to an equal level the branches amount of tax and that of the subsidiaries. The taxation works in limiting the advantage of branch tax liability as compared to subsidiaries. Partnership with a local firm The other form of entry of the company into the U.S market is by entering into a partnership with a U.S based company. This is a situation where there is a contemplat ion of a joint venture in a situation. In this case, the foreign company enters into a relationship with a company already located in the U.S where they share resources. The entry into a partnership done by the foreign company by contributing capital with the US based company to a newly formed corporation in order to obtain a subsidiary. The other form of partnership is where the foreign company can enter into a general partnership with the U.S based company and carry on business in common. The partnership is subject to various legal and taxation rules as per the relevant state statutes. Procedure of forming an entity The formation and the running of a business enterprise in the United States require compliance of a number of various registration standards. The basic requirement is that the company must comply with the rules of the registration and regulating authorities. Employment issues Foreign companies and their subsidiaries doing business in the U.S should comply with the empl oyment and labor laws of the United States. In some situations, the foreign parent companies become liable for omissions or actions of the subsidiary companies operating in the United States. The labor laws in the United States are more comprehensive and pose some technicality in operation especially if a foreign employer does not understand the laws. The dangers associated with non-compliance of these laws include

Outsourcing is here to Stay Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Outsourcing is here to Stay - Essay Example Off-shoring refers to the task which is assigned to a third party based in another country away from the country who intends to carry out the work. With an increase in globalization and the amount of task being outsourced, the difference between outsourcing and off-shoring is hardly felt. Counties like India and China have been two hotspots for carrying out outsourcing task. Central and Eastern Europe are attractive destinations, but costs are rising there, too. Offshoring is actually increasing in Africa and the Middle East, but political instability poses ongoing challenges there. In our day to day use, we get to hear different abbreviations like BPO, ITO, and KPO. But what do they actually mean and where lies the difference We need to look into the details of each and try to know the difference between these three different types of outsourcing. a. Business Processing Outsourcing (BPO) - it refers to outsourcing a specific business processing task. It can again be divided into two categories namely front office outsourcing and back office outsourcing. Front office outsourcing includes customer-related services like marketing, technical support etc and back office support refers to services like billing or purchasing. b. Information Processing Outsourcing (ITO) - To impart information, information processing outsourcing too is being carried out both for front and back office support. c. Knowledge Processing Outsourcing (KPO) - Similar to ITO, we have the knowledge processing outsourcing units known as KPIs who by and large are knowledge-based units who provide analytical, technical and have decision-making skills. Pharmaceutical Research & Development units mainly fall under this category.     Even though outsourcing has been a very common concept in today's world mainly for the developing countries like India, but there are a large number of issues pertaining to this sector. Many BPOs, ITO, and KPIs have not been able to succeed in today's world because of a huge competition. The clients who have been able to deliver quality resource have been able to succeed. Thus, there is a need to have quality assurance and quality check to successfully carry out the task. The other problem that one can foresee is the conflict that arises between the client and the vendor. The client intends to get better service, often at lower costs, than it would get by doing the work themselves.

Improving Organisational Performance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Improving Organisational Performance - Essay Example Hence, affiliations ought to, abruptly, inculcate the transformation of the entire HR activities into more appealing HPW systems rather than lag in the same old HR system. These upgrading results into a potential competitive benefit meeting most challenges associated to low performance systems. It also augments the level of workforce performance and involvement in the welfare of the organization’s performance. In reference to (Datta, Guthrie & Wright 2005), affiliations that embrace the application of HPW systems or rather upgraded HR practices that respect and encourage workforce performance, motivation and competencies experience augmented labor output and overall affiliation performance outcome. For success to be evident, affiliations ought to differentiate via service distinction, as they drive the content of their work systems: with the business strategies of the organization considered. (Liao, Topak, Lepak & Hong 2009 p.372) emphasized that the strategically directed app roaches suggests that for the given argument to be effectively evident, affiliation work systems and structures ought to establish a horizontal fit within HR practices. This is in such a way that these practices match and complement well, achieving a resultant vertical fit, to align the affiliation strategies with the work systems. HPW systems are a comprehensive fusion of HR activities inclusive of compensation policy, participation of the workforce, and raining to drive in skills. These working systems augur perfectly with the affiliation work structures and occurrences meant to augment, by a vast scale, the resultant competencies, adaptability, flexibility and commitment of workforces(Bohlander & Snell 2010). Additionally, the working systems focus primarily on systemizing and synchronizing the various sections of the affiliation to aid it achieve its goals and objectives within a specified time. In the entire study, I shall critically explore and discuss the HPW systems in Coca- cola and Renault companies. Coca-Cola Company Introduction In Coca-Cola, performance management entails yearly appraisal of workforces’ job performance and the processes of communicating working expectations, providing respective feedback on work performance on a recurrent basis that inculcates en-year rating. Through this rating practice, the affiliation is able to promote, compensate and make other employment decisions. Contemporarily, Coca-Cola has substantially implemented a consummately ingenious Pm system for the corporate workforces in the review cycle for 2002. For instance, the company has inculcated a unique performance management system for the US workforces whose aim is to ensure a fairly documented work performance assessment that is based on work related measurements. Instantly, the system requires a worker to meet their manager at the start of every new cycle to define their performance objectives. This aids the company to have complete control over their workf orces’ performance behaviors. Renault Company Introduction Renault is an automobile company that has a distinct declaration to respect workforces’ basic rights and helping them to progress in their working environment through application of ingenious performance management practices. In order to cultivate a spirit of honesty and complete transparency, Renault has established a good conduct code that guides its workforces to ensure that they deliver their best in terms of work

The pathology, physiology and biochemistry of hypertension Essay Example for Free

The pathology, physiology and biochemistry of hypertension Essay Hypertension is a condition in which the individual’s blood pressure rises to an abnormal level.   In this condition, the systolic blood pressure is persistently above 140 mm of Hg and/or the diastolic blood is persistently above 90 mm of Hg.   The quantity of blood pumped by the heart, and the size of the blood determine the blood pressure (blood pressure = cardiac output * peripheral vascular resistance).   Besides this, the quantity of water present in the body, the salt levels, kidneys, nervous system, hormone levels, etc, also play a very important role in determining the blood pressure (Najafian, N., 2006). The blood pressure tends to increase with age, and is about 160/95 at the age of 50 years.   There may several causes related to hypertension.   However, in 95 % of the cases a single underlying cause is not found, which may be due to interplay of several factors.   This type of hypertension is known as ‘essential hypertension’.   In more than 70 % of such individual, a pattern of inheritance is observed.  Ã‚   Several ethnic groups such as Jews, African-American and Japanese, develop hypertension more often (Mayo Clinic. 2006). Studies have demonstrated that the important cause for essential hypertension is an increase in the peripheral resistance of the blood vessels.   This disorder can develop due to sympathetic nervous activity or from narrowing of the blood vessels.   The remaining 5% of the cases are caused due to certain disorders such as cardiac disorder (corarctation of the aorta), renal disorders (glomerulonephritis and chronic pyelonrphritis), endocrinal disorders (such as pheochromocytoma, primary aldosteronism, Cushing’ syndrome), drug usage (such as corticosteroids, certain birth control pills) and sometimes during pregnancy. Excessive hormones are released in pheochromocytoma, which cause an increase in the cardiac output and rise in the peripheral vascular resistance.   In the renal disorder, the kidneys do not function efficiently, resulting in sodium retention in the body.   In some conditions, excessive rennin is produced by the kidney resulting in activation of the angiotensin II (that has great vasoconstrictor action).   Angiotensin II encourages release of aldosterone which causes sodium retention.   In primary aldosteronism, the mineral sodium is retained in the body, along with changes in the vascular smooth muscles of the blood vessels (Boon, N.A. and Fox, K.A.A. 1996). In individuals with essential hypertension, the large arteries experience changes in the vessel wall.   The inner elastic lamina gets thickened; the smooth muscles increase in size and fibrous tissues gets deposited.   In an effort to normalise the blood flow, the arteries dilate and become tortuous.   In such circumstances, due to the damage of the inner-lining tissues of the blood vessels (endothelium), the deposition and retention of lipoproteins in the sub-epithelial wall develops.   Along with this, other substances such as connective tissue matrix, smooth muscles, the mineral calcium, inflammatory cells and newly-developed blood vessels are formed.   (Shah, P.K., 2001).   Smaller blood vessels get narrowed, and aneurysms are formed. Due to these anatomical changes in the blood vessels, the blood flow and the peripheral vascular resistance is increased.   The process of atheroma is also hastened.   If the blood supply to the kidney is affected with the narrowing of the blood vessels, rennin and angiotensin are activated, and sodium and water are retained.   Sometimes the associated narrowing of the blood vessels to the organs are so severe that the organs began to function abnormally.  Ã‚   The kidneys produce proteinuria and microscopic haematuria.   Besides, the blood supply to the brain is also affected as the arteries begin to narrow (Boon, N.A. and Fox, K.A.A. 1996). In the body, multiple mechanisms may be involved in elevating the blood pressure.   In arterial hypertension, the relationship between cardiac output and the total vascular peripheral resistance is distorted.   Blood pressure is affected by several variables including genetic, environmental and demographic, which affect both the cardiac output and peripheral vascular resistance (includes age, sex, gender, body mass index, etc).   Cardiac output has an effect on the blood volume which is influenced by sodium levels in the body.   The peripheral vascular resistance is affected by hormonal and neuronal factors.   Vasoconstrictors that reduce the lumen for blood flow include Angiotensin II, catecholamines and the endothelium. The vasodilatation factors include kinin and prostoglandins.   Several auto-regulatory mechanisms also take part in regulating the peripheral vascular resistance.   They automatically increase the blood flow when vasoconstriction occurs.   The local factors that adjust the blood pressure include pH, hypoxia, alpha and beta-adrenergic mechanisms that affect cardiac contraction, vascular tone, heart beat, etc.   The kidneys adjust the blood pressure in several ways.   The rennin-angiotensin system (RAS) affects the metabolism of sodium and peripheral vascular resistance.    Renin is released by the juxtaglomerular cells that transform angiotensinogen present in the blood to angiotensin 1.   This is later transformed to angiotensin II by the angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE).   Angiotensin increases the blood pressure by inducing vasoconstriction (action on the smooth muscles present in the blood vessels) and increasing the blood volume (by encouraging aldosterone release).   The kidneys also increase the blood pressure by reabsorbing sodium from the proximal tubules.   In this way the sodium levels increases in the body and thereby there is an increase in the blood volume (Schoen, F. J. 2002). The kidneys manage about 170 litres of blood filtration every day.   This amount of blood contains about 23 moles of salt.   More than 99.5% of this is reabsorbed back into the blood through ionic channels, exchange and transporter, etc.   Certain changes in the proteins that involve sodium reabsorption may be expressed through genetic defects.   This condition is known as ‘Liddle’s syndrome’.   Likewise, several other components of the RAS system are affected by genetic defects.   The kidneys may release reduced amounts of sodium leading to increased blood volume and increased cardiac output, leading to a rise in the blood pressure (Schoen, F. J. 2002). The blood vessel wall may be directly stimulated by chronic vasoconstriction.   This can lead to thickening of the blood vessel wall, which further narrows the lumen and raises the peripheral vascular resistance.   Large and medium-sized blood vessels have associated changes in the blood vessel wall.   Aortic dissection and haemorrhage can occur due to increased vascular resistance.   In small blood vessels, hyaline arteriosclerosis and hyperplasic arteriosclerosis can result (Schoen, F. J. 2002). Genetic defects can cause rare forms of hypertension.   Deficiency in enzymes of aldosterone metabolism leads to increased release of aldosterone, and increased salt and water reabsorbtion (Schoen, F. J. 2002). Aldosterone is present in the cells of adrenal zona gloemerulosa.   Angiotensin II helps to activate it through the RAS system.   When the sodium levels decrease, and the blood pressure drops, the alodsterone gets activated.   Angiotensongen is combined with renin.   Angiotensin I is formed which is converted to Angiotensin II by the ACE enzyme present on the surface of endothelial cells located in the kidneys and the lungs.   Aminopeptidase converts Angiotensin II to Angiotensin III by the enzyme aminopeptidase (Schmidt, T.J. Et al. 2006). Several enzymes such as caboxypeptidases and aminopeptidases produce a number of subtacnes related to angiotensin such as angiotensin I, II, III, IV, etc.   Each has their own physiological function.   Several alternative pathways may be present mainly associated with angiotensin II production.   Angiotensin I can be converted to another form known as ‘Angiotensin-(1-9) by the enzyme carboxypeptidase (associated with ACE).   This later gets converted to Angiotensin II.   Further studies need to be conducted on the exact mechanism by this conversion takes place.   Clinically, ACE and angiotensin I receptor are significant, although a lot has to be studied about these alternate pathways (Kramkowski, K. Et al. 2006). The diagnosis of hypertension is made based on the history, symptoms, signs, and the results of several diagnostic tests such as urine tests, blood tests, Electrocardiogram (ECG), chest X-rays, etc.   Urine tests are required to determine the level of proteins, glucose, and the presence of blood in the urine.   Blood tests are required to determine the level of urea, creatinine, cholesterol, triglycerides and hormones in the blood.   Chest X-rays, angiograms and MRI scans of the heart are required to determine the activity of the heart and the lungs. ECG is required to determine the electrical activity of the heart and abnormalities such as ischemia and left ventricular hypertrophy.   The National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute (2003) have classified hypertension based on the severity of the blood pressure.   These include normal blood pressure (120/80 mm), pre-hypertension (120-139/80-89 mm), stage 1 (140-159/90-99 mm), and stage 2 (150/100 mm).   In pheochomocytoma a specialised test to determine the 24 hour urinary cathecholamine output may be performed.   In Conn’s syndrome the blood rennin and aldosterone activity is determined (Boon, N.A. and Fox, K.A.A. 1996). The main aim of treatment is to relieve the symptoms, reduce the effects of the disease process and prevent further complications.   Once hypertension is detected, the individual has to take care and follow certain measures in diet, lifestyle, physical activity and consume certain medications.   Studies have demonstrated that timely and appropriate treatment can help reduce the occurrence of several complications such as stroke, renal failure and others.   Besides, the fatalities due to cardiovascular events are significantly reduced (Boon, N.A. and Fox, K.A.A. 1996). The individual has to consume a low-sodium diet, and reduce consumption of alcohol.   Individuals, who smoke, may gain significantly if they stop the habit.   Exercises can also be very beneficial to hypertensive individuals, and can drastically help reduce the blood pressure.   Regular consumption of medications has ensured that the individual’s blood pressure is within normal limits.   Drugs are administered as a single or a combination therapy.   The problem in hypertensive individuals is that they tend to stop the medications once the symptoms reduce.   However, the disease can remain silent, and the individual may experience the complications, later.    Hence, it would be advisable to continue the medications as prescribed, with appropriate control of the side-effects.   Several agents such as beta-blockers, angiotensin II receptor blockers, ACE inhibitors, thiazide diuretics, calcium channel blockers, vasodilators are available which are administered appropriately.   The first-line drugs use varies from one individual to another depending on the severity of the condition. Combination therapy is also available to treat refractory cases (or when hypertension cannot be controlled by drug doses at which side-effects do not develop).   During emergency treatment of hypertension, the blood pressure should not be brought rapidly down as it can lead to brain damage, cardiac insufficiency and renal problems.   The blood pressure has to be brought down to 150/90 level over a period of one hour to ninety minutes.   In an emergency situation, sodium nitroprusside is mode ideal bring down the blood pressure.   Labetalol, oral nifedipine and hydralazine are also ideal to bring to bring down the blood pressure reduced (Boon, N.A. and Fox, K.A.A. 1996).    References: Boon, N.A. and Fox, K.A.A. 1996, â€Å"Diseases of the Cardiovascular System.† In: Edwards, C.R.W., Bouchier, I.A.D. and Haslett, C., Davidson’s Principles and Practice of Medicine, 17th ed, Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh. 191-311. Kramkowski, K., Mogielnicki, A. and Buczko, W. 2006. â€Å"The physiological significance of the alternative pathways of angiotensin II production.† J Physiol Pharmacol, vol. 57, no. 4, pp. 529-539. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmedcmd=Retrievedopt=AbstractPluslist_uids=17229979query_hl=3itool=pubmed_docsum Mayo Clinic Staff. 2006, High blood pressure (hypertension). [Online], Available:   http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/high-blood-pressure/DS00100/DSECTION=1, [Accessed: 2007, January, 30]. Schmidt, T.J. and Litwack, G. 2006, Biochemistry of Hormones, in: Devlin, T.M., Textbook of Biochemistry with Clinical Correlations, Wiley-Less, New jersey. 895-946. Schoen, F.J. 2002, Blood Vessels, in:   Kumar, V., Abbas, A.K., Fausto, N. (eds), Robins and Cotran: Pathologic Basis of Disease, 6th ed, Saunders, Philadelphia. 2002. 423-444. Shah, P.K. 2001, Pathogenesis of arthrosclerosis, in: Rosendorff, C., Essential Cardiology: Principles and Practice, W.B. Saunders Company., Philadelphia. Tweedie, D. (2006). The Pathology of Hypertension (Heart/Circulation). [Online], Available:   http://72.14.235.104/search?q=cache:izxWLiHy3tUJ:www.uwo.ca/pathol/MedsII/Notes/CVS-Hypertension.rtf+hypertension+pathologyhl=enct=clnkcd=4, [Accessed: 2007, January, 30].

The Liberal Governments Welfare Reforms in the years 1906-1914 Essay Example for Free

The Liberal Governments Welfare Reforms in the years 1906-1914 Essay Was New Liberalism the most important factor behind the Liberal Governments Welfare Reforms in the years 1906-1914? Explain your answer. New Liberalism was simply an ideology, encompassing reforms spurred by other, more important factors. Crucially was the need to reform, regarding the low national efficiency. As a 1905 report said No country, however rich, can permanently hold its own in the race of international competition if hampered by an increasing load of dead weight [of poverty]. Secondly, was the desire to reform, which housed incentives such as the poverty, moral and social obligation, and tangible electoral victory. New Liberalism didnt evoke reform; it simply housed other factors for it. Although New Liberalism as a new ideology demanded reform in the Party, it is too vague a factor to have had any direct correlation with the reforms of 1906-14. In this aspect, it was an umbrella factor. New Liberalism was perhaps inevitable, as Churchill said this poor man is here as a result of economic causes which have been too long unregulated- in other words, the realisation individualism wasnt working. Indeed, the ideology was not even a product of the Liberals, but grew out of an intellectual tradition formulated by L.T. Hobhouse and J. Hobson in the 1880s, arguing that if people were impoverished through no fault of their own, self-reliance was undermined. Consequently, New Liberalism was merely the opportunistic by-product of the coinciding findings of Hobhouse with the writings of Booth and Rowntree, which raised moral and social awareness. New Liberalism was evident in all the reforms of the party, contravening old liberalism, an example of which is the National insurance Act, 1911. Being governmentally interfering, and therefore traditionally anti-liberalist, this threw aside the conventions of working-class laziness and provided the worker with money and job networking should he be out of work. However, cynical though it is, most of the reforms also acted in the interest of national efficiency, and so the state of the nation on an international scale was a big incentive to introduce collectivist policies, if not the biggest. Recruitment for the Boer War of 1898 highlighted how poor the nations health was, when one third of the population were unfit to fight. Furthermore, Britain struggled to defeat the Boers, despite being a big, imperial nation, and them a poor, insignificant force. Consequently, through the exposure of the nations poor health, the Childrens Charter was introduced. This involved the free school meals act of 1906, in which local authorities were given the power to provide free school meals for needy children, if they wished to use it, and by 1914, this became compulsory (the previous Conservative government had refused to listen to the campaign). Similarly, in 1907, the Liberals introduced compulsory medical inspections in schools, and again in 1912, government grants were made available to cover treatment and school clinics began to be set up. This measure shows the government were realising that, to keep their country and empire great, they had to have more involvement in the maintenance of the nation. Likewise, when Beveridge and Lloyd George -worried about unemployment visited Germany and saw the reforms they and other countries were making, there is no doubt they took influence from them, and so similar policies were introduced in England. Germany was growing economically, and Britain falling behind in terms of economic growth; thus, the imitating Insurance Act of 1910-11 was produced. This showed an effort to boost efficiency by directly shadowing Germany, by this time hugely prosperous, in the hope to improve their own country economically too. Also, the findings of Booth and Rowntree too, ultimately helped lead to social reform through their provision of real, statistical evidence needed to boost the case for state intervention. Charles Booth carried out a series of investigations in London, unearthing that 30% of the population were living in abject poverty, including 45% of old people. It was discovered that, contrary to popular belief, people were poor because of factors such as old age, sickness, and an underperforming economy. Subsequently, Booth organised and led a campaign in favour of a system pensions paid for out of taxation, which won Labour and Trade Union support, and which would have healed the problem of poverty for the elderly.. By no coincidence was the Old Age Pensions Act passed 3 years later, which heeding the advice of Booth was a non-contributory scheme, financed by the government out of taxation, and providing 5 shillings a week to those over the age of 70. Furthermore, to appease poverty from unemployment, the government set up a labour exchange and insurance principal; creating a network of exchange information about local work, and also planned a workers insurance scheme which workers would pay into and, in times of the aforementioned poverty, draw on what they needed. The moral and social justice included in Booth and Rowntrees work was a huge contributing factor in the Old Age Pensions Act of 1908, largely regarded as a significant step forward in terms of governmental intervention. Lloyd George also linked the two, by 1911 noticing The administration of the Old Age Pension Act has revealed a mass of poverty. Moral and social justice were at the heart of many other Liberal policies, for example; the moral obligation to help the ill worker manifested in the Health Insurance Act, 1911, through which a fund was created that the worker would pay four pence into, the employer three, and the state two. When the worker was off work ill, they would receive ten shillings a week sick pay for 13 weeks, Furthermore, the Liberals still had to produce policies that differentiated them from the Conservatives. The free school meals policy, for example, directly distinguished them, as the Tories had refused to pass the act a few years before, as did they with the Peoples Budget. Lloyd Georges Budget conflicted with the Tory ideology of not taxing the rich, with the Liberal government looking to provide extra cash for the old age pensions and dreadnought battleships [and] outwit the House of Lords (Pearce Stewart). An extra à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½7 million was raised by increasing higher rates of income tax on those earning over à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½3,00 per annum, essentially targeting the rich, which conflicted with the core of Conservative values. Liberalism had the upper hand on Conservatism. The politicians of the party not only wanted to differentiate Liberalism, but also themselves as political heavyweights. For example, Churchills Trade Boards Act (1909) broke new ground, defending the workers Charles Booth had labelled a body of reckless, starving competitors for work, but like many of the Liberals policies it wasnt home grown, and the plight of the sweated industries had been publicized by the National Anti-Sweating League. Lloyd George is another prime example, and historical interpretation suggests his proposed constitutional reform of the Lords was an attempt to put himself on the political map, force the back-down of the Lords (peers against the people) as well as winning votes on the back of this controversy. His Peoples Budget drew on the criticisms launched on the House of Lords for refusing a budget on monetary matters-money, of course, provided by the taxpayer , and them being unelected patrons- something Lloyd George emphasised in ensuing publicity. Indeed, Beatrice Webb has argued Lloyd George and Winston Churchill have practically taken the limelight, not merely from their own colleagues, but from the Labour Party. With the Labour Party proving a growing threat electorally, New Liberalism was an attempt to spike the guns [Beatrice Webb] of the party through popular socialist reforms. Labour gained 29 seats in the 1906 election, and up until that point, the Liberals had been mainly out of power, forcing them to recognise Labour as a threat. As a consequence of this competition, the Trade Disputes Act (1906), which reversed the Taff Vale decision and would gain vital working class votes, was taken from the Labour Partys own bill, and returned the right to strike and picket peacefully to the Unions. The Liberals realised if they didnt deliver, Labour would continue to grow. Again, The Mines Act of 1908, which introduced a maximum eight-hour working day for miners, ( a political compromise-Pearce Stewart) was another reform which Labour were sympathetic too. Furthermore, with extended suffrage to the working class, Liberals had to get the working mans vote, and so their socialist reforms came at a time when Labours guns would have been most appealing to the electorate. Overall, it is clear that the Welfare Reforms were influenced entirely on the climate of the time, and New Liberalism simply put a name to this. Yes, moral and social justice unearthed by Booth and Rowntree were important, and the party still had to settle on their political identity, but poverty and its injustice had been around for decades and reform could have waited if need be; furthermore, Labour, although showing potential, were not a real threat until some years later. The welfare reforms were introduced because Britain as a country was failing, and New Liberalist Reforms were, (arguably), just a semi-socialist guise focused on increasing national efficiency. Thats not to say the reforms wouldnt have ever been introduced had Britain not struggled with the Boers; they would have been delayed, and were created in 1906-14 as a reaction to the (international) state of the nation.

Automobile Trade Restrictions Economics Essay

Automobile Trade Restrictions Economics Essay The automobile industry is considered a very complex and vital industry compared to others, this is because of the development process with each project. The U.S. has said to have the most open automotive market in the world. The automotive industry has been a part of every major U.S. trade development dating back since World War One and is composed of three broad industries. These three industries consist of high-volume, full-ranged producers, which offer higher volumes and lower prices; while appealing to a mass amount of consumers. GM, Nissan, and Fiat are the main companies in this full-range producer and compete on a cost reduction basis. The second industry is the specialist producers, (BMW, Volvo, and Mercedes) these producers supply higher performance cars at higher prices and compete on the basis of differentiation and cost recovery. Lastly, there are niche producers, (alpine, TRV, and Ferrari), who offer on exclusivity and extreme performance. In addition to these producers, some trends can be identified when examining the global automotive market. These trends consist of the global Market, Establishment of Global Alliances, and Industry Consolidation. First, the global market is considered to be the worlds largest automobile manufacturer. The global market invests in production facilities that reduce production costs and are located in places such as Latin America, China, Malaysia and markets in Southeast Asia. Secondly, Establishment of Global Alliances are referred to as the, The Big Three (GM, Ford and Chrysler) who have merged in partnerships with other European and Japanese automobile manufacturers. Finally, Industry Consolidation involves increasing global competition among manufacturers and positioning within foreign markets. The U.S. is in the worlds top three automobile industries along with Japan and Germany. These automobile industries are major wealth generators for Europe and the U.S. recently providing over 17 million foreign and domestic cars and trucks in the U.S., which in turn accounted for more than 400 billion in sales. In addition to these producers and trends, there are six leading automobile manufactures, which are located in the U.S. and Japan. The U.S. consists of Daimler-Chrysler which is regulated by the United Nations, while General motors, and Ford are the other two in the U.S. The other three are produced by Japan and consist of Toyota, Nissan, and Honda. Between these six companies, they control over 87% of the market. The automotive industry has been a crucial part of the global market with automotive products accounting for ten percent of global merchandise trade. Fortunately and unfortunately with trade also comes trade restrictions. So what is a trade restriction? A trade restriction is defined as an artificial restriction on the trade of goods between two countries. The most known and important form of trade restriction is a tariff, import quotas, voluntary export restraints, and antidumping actions are also restrictions which will be explained in more detail later. In this paper I will explain trade restrictions/barriers that the U.S. imposes on the automobile industry, what programs are available to help make automobile trading more efficient and attractive for everyone, and also mention the various tariffs and trade barriers. In addition, I will talk about the current global automotive market , new foreign policy introduced in the U.S. and other nations, and finally explain the ramifications of certain restrictions and there effects on different people groups within the nation. First, there are many programs whose intentions are to help the automotive industry in trading. First are (APEC), Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation and Automotive Dialogue (AD) which serve as a forum for APEC. (APEC) attempts to find strategies to increase the integration and development of the automotive industry in a region. AD try to promote growth and development of the regional auto industry while also attempting to offer certain recommendations. Some of the economies that have participated in APEC and the AD include Australia, Canada, China, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, the Philippines, Chinese Taipei, Thailand, Viet Nam and the United States. Many of these same countries have also tried and introduce new policies to make their country better off. For example, in 2004 China issued a new automobile industrial policy which discouraged the importation of automotive parts but encouraged the use of domestic technology in new vehicles assembled in China. In 2005, China issued regulations implementing the new automobile industrial policy.   The policy was said to unfairly discriminate against imported automotive parts and discourage automobile manufacturers in China from using imported automotive parts in the assembly of vehicles. In March 2008, Chinas policy was ruled inconsistent with several WTO provisions then in January of 2009, China complied with the recommendations and set rulings. Along with China, Korea also has attempted to bring out barriers that restrict importation and sale which include anti-import basis, standards and certification process and procedures, tariff and tax structure, and currency manipulation. So what are barriers/ restriction design to do? Barriers to entry are designed to keep out potential entrants from entering a profitable market. The barriers to enter the automotive industry are considered substantial, a new company must have the startup capital required to establish manufacturing capacity to achieve minimum efficient scale which is prohibitive. Many automotive established companies are entering new markets through strategic partnerships or through buying out or merging with other companies. Previously , the barriers to entry for new markets were low; However once the U.S. invited Japanese makers who began to offer quality vehicles in lower price markets compared to the U.S. changed this. Not only has Japan had success, many large automotive companies have globalized and entered foreign markets with varying degrees of success including, Asia, Africa, and South America whose barriers to entry are similar. As mentioned briefly before, there are a number of types of tariffs and trade Barriers that the government can employ and they include Specific tariffs, Ad valorem tariffs, Licenses, Import quotas, Voluntary export restraints, and Local content requirements. Specific Tariffs are considered a fixed fee levied on one unit of an imported good. Ad Valorem Tariff is based on a percentage of that goods value. Non-tariff barriers to trade include Embargoes, Subsidies, standards, and licenses which are granted to a business by the government which then allows the business to import a certain type of good into the country. So what effects can these barriers cause? Barriers can cause restriction in competition or increase prices on consumers. An import quota is a restriction placed on the amount of a particular good that can be imported. Voluntary Export Restraints (VER) is a type of trade barrier that is voluntary and is created by the exporting country rather than the importing one. Also, instead of placing a quota on a number of goods that can be imported, the government can require a percentage of a good be made domestically. The restriction can be a percentage of the good itself, or a percentage of the value of the good. Now that you know a little about tariffs and certain barriers, lets examine further the effect of tariffs and trade barriers on businesses and consumers. Patents, limit pricing, and cost advantages are all considered barriers to entry. In the short run, effects such as higher prices for goods can decrease consumption by individual consumers and by businesses, causing business profit and the government to see an increase in revenue from things like duties. However, in the long term, businesses can see decline in profits and efficiency due to lack of competition and future substitutes to their products. When speaking about the government, the long-term effect of subsidies is an increase in the demand for public services, overall resulting in less disposable income. When looking into the future, Japan continues its economic expansion which has allowed them to see continued success in exports. With the automobile industry being extremely competitive, the U.S. has worked with the, Big Three to introduce a program called the, PNGV which is a partnership for new generation vehicles. They aim to strengthen the U.S. global competiveness, keep jobs, while also trying to reduce the dependence of foreign oil, and improve the environment. The U.S. and Europe had increased concern regarding mobility, economic development, safety and environmental concerns when putting out new automobiles. As the government continues to try and provide incentives to reduce tax increases and fuel price increase they are also intending to find cars that reduce air pollution. Older models make automobile traded restrictions more difficult because of controversies over car prices and consumer preferences. Many consumers are now looking for vehicles that are equipped with, air-bags, power steering, antilock brakes, comfort, technology, and automobiles that reduce carbon going into the atmosphere. Car manufacturing must met safety, environmental, and business standard demand for international and domestic regulations. According to the future growth in the automotive industry over the next decade is expected to come from places like India, China, and Eastern Europe. Major companies are beginning to develop low cost cars, which include, Hyundai, Toyota, Fiat and others. With the increase worries about environmental issues, Hybrid sales have increased drastically. The U.S. and Europe are the main introducers of less pollutant and fuel efficiency standards in vehicles. So what are the ramifications of these barriers? Restrictions or trade barriers seem only to limit world trade, while also decreasing economic efficiency, reducing total production and employment, raise prices, and even cause retaliation. Some domestic companies benefit at the expense of foreign companies and workers, and domestic consumers. While subsidies do benefit domestic companies and workers in exporting industries, tariffs decrease exports and shift resources and production from more effective to less effective producers. In conclusion, while Japan continues to force competition on the U.S. It causes damage to the U.S car industry because of priced car exports. Causing the U.S. to now only represent s less than  ¼ of the world Industry and its market share continues to decline. Since 2007 the big three has been falling drastically. Chrysler is now selling 53 percent fewer vehicles since 2007, while GM is down 23% from 2007 and Ford 32%. Honda also saw declines along with Toyota who was down 37 percent, Nissan 31% and Honda 35 percent. All of these drops have caused oversupply in car lots, motivated dealers, easier financing terms, and long-term industry presence driving down the price of gas, making now the perfect time to purchase automobiles.

Drinking Status, Labeling, and Social Rejection Essay -- essays resear

Drinking Status, Labeling, and Social Rejection   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Drinking has been, for a long time, a very debatable topic. In the 1920s, drinking was seen as something so bad that it needed to be prohibited completely. Alcohol consumption is still often seen as distasteful, especially in large quantities. In this study by Keith M. Kilty and Thomas M. Meenaghan, researchers looked at the drinking status of fictional people along with other factors such as age and sex and asked participants to rate these people based on such attributes. The article mentions several reasons that this study is less limited than other studies referring to labeling. Other studies have included only social distance and since this study included friendship acceptance and respect along with other characteristics of the personality such as religion and age, it explores a variety of different aspects of labeling and social rejection.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In class, we talked about labeling in terms of IQ. We looked at the effects of labeling children as intelligent or slow and how these labels changed the way children approached their education. This study looks at labeling from a different perspective. Rather than looking at the effects on the person who has been labeled, this study looks at how a label can affect someone’s perception of another person. Using the social characteristics provided, the subjects draw conclusions about the fictional person according to respect, friendship acceptance, and social distance. We also talked briefly about substance abuse and how there is a difference between addiction and dependency. This might tie into the discrepancy between â€Å"problem drinker† and â€Å"alcoholic† in the study. Different groups gave these two categories different ratings which could be seen as a relationship between addiction and dependency and how the two different labels are perc eived.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Three sample groups were recruited for the study. The first was a group of 101 males and 104 females with an average age of 44.5 years; this group was called the community group (C). The second was the practitioner group (P) with 73 males and 46 females with an average age of 27.1; they were all graduate students in the Graduate School of Social Work at Marywood College. The third and final group consisted of inmates, all male, with an avera... ... need to be in groups that have more racial and gender diversity. This would deal with a lot of the possible biases that are inherent in the study. It also might be interesting to include race or ethnicity as a description factor of the stimuli to see if that has an effect on the responses. The religions may need to be broadened in order to account for the religious diversity in our country. Although I think that the study is relevant to the topic of labeling, it might be better served in a broader context. However, too much variables would make it too difficult to decide what is causing the responses. There is a thin line between too much and not enough in this situation. I think that this study gives interesting insight into what it might be like to be labeled as an alcoholic in our society and with an updated version, I think it could be very relevant to the study of alcoholism. Reference: All the information in this paper was drawn from the article by Kilty, Keith M. and Meenaghan, Thomas M. out of the Journal of Social Psychology, 1973. The article is entitled Drinking Status, Labeling, and Social Rejection. I also pulled some of the information used from in class lectures.

Public Nudity Should Not be Allowed :: Argumentative Persuasive Essays

Public Nudity Should Not be Allowed In the summer of 1996 Gwen Jacobs enjoyed a topless summer stroll during which she was seen by a local O.P.P officer, was apprehended and subsequently charged with indecent exposure. Gwen Jacobs pleaded not guilty in court and won the right to go topless in Ontario. This incident brought up an excellent question: should women be allowed to go topless on public beaches and in other public areas? The answer is strictly no, women should not be allowed to go topless anywhere outside of their own home. One of the many reasons why I believe that women should not be allowed to go topless is with respect to the safety of women. Men and boys have, in recent years, been using short, tight, skirts and shirts as an excuse for rape or date rape. Men have said that the girl was wearing a tight shirt and short skirt and it was obvious that she was easy and wanted the attention. This statement leads me to my next point. The average human being upon first contact with a stranger bases his initial impression of that person solely on the person's appearance. This is only natural as the only thing that we know about this stranger is what we see of them the first time we meet. We all are aware of the sayings "Preppy","Jockish","Skater","Sluty" etc. This final saying, â€Å"Sluty† is interpreted by 90 percent of North Americans as a tight skirt and tight tank top which happens to be the usual ensemble of a prostitute. This first impression of a girl in nothing but a skirt and a bare chest will no doubt elevate to the new version of a â€Å"Slut† and a girl that wants it. My second point is, what kind of questions will a mother be asked by her son when he sees a half nude woman walking down the street. The first question that this child will ask is why do these women have no shirt on and you do? Your reply will be well ahhh go talk to your father. This dilemma will no doubt be brought about as these and other questions about the sexual nature of the body will be put forth by young children. Questions that you as a parent do not feel should be answered truthfully to such a young child. My third point begins thousands of years ago when man first walked on the earth. When man first walked he hunted and his wife(clothless) cleaned the game and took care of the young.

A Fireside Chat Essay

â€Å"It was good work, the kind of work that let you sleep soundly at night and, when you awoke, look forward to the day†, Jeanette Walls quoted. According to Wikipedia, work ethics is defined as a value based on hard work and diligence. In the text, A Fireside Chat, Sir Lynden Pindling speaks about poor work ethics and how it must be changed to build The Bahamas. Some civil servants are discouraged because of victimization, others have no hope for the future and some believe that since â€Å"their’’ government is in power they no longer have to work hard. The Bahamas is a democratic country; therefore everyone should have a freedom of speech and freedom to vote for the government of their choice. Sir Lynden Pindling addresses that a factory has been closed down, vegetable crates have been denied to small farmers and workers have been laid off work because of political reasons. These unfair actions cause workers to be discouraged, whether they were the ones directly affected or not. Also, victimization causes other workers to feel the need to not work hard. Put yourself in their shoes, if other people who don’t support the people who don’t support the PLP government are being fired and because you voted for them your job is secure wouldn’t you feel comfortable and slack off as well? I know I would. Employers who victimize employees not only show poor work ethic to their workers but also the public. If you fire people because they have different views you are making it hard on your business. This can cause slower services because of lack of workers and eventually add to the decline of customers. Sir Lynden Pindling also states that no government would function well or long without an efficient civil service. Why put your country, let alone your business at jeopardy of failing? Not only adults have poor work ethics, so do adolescents. Some children feel discouraged because of the area they live in or their financial situations and provide mediocre services as well. For example, some packing boys never have a smile on their face and when loading your bags to the car they handle them with no care whatsoever. Attitudes like this can cause them to receive little or no tips from customers. No matter how big or small your job is, it is vital. In paragraph eight of the text, Sir Lynden Pindling encourages the children to never give up on their dreams because nothing is impossible. He even gives examples of children in poor communities, â€Å"little Mary of Toote Shop Corner† and â€Å"little John of Meadow Street’’, that education is the key and dreams can become reality. Some civil servants believe that since â€Å"their† government is in power they have arrived and are free to slack off on their jobs. Have you ever wondered why the waitress serving you seemed as though she had a frown painted on her face and it seemed like she did not want to be at work that day? This is because workers do not value their jobs or even the customers. Some workers even treat the local Bahamians poorly, but treat the tourist very well. This may be because of the tourists’ skin color or accent, so the waitresses assume these customers will tip better. Local Bahamians are treated with mediocrity because the waitresses assume they will tip poorly or not tip at all. Aside from having bad attitudes on the job, some workers do not act professionally. For example, last week Thursday I went to The Bowling Alley with a few friends and during our game of bowling the waitress came to take our order. Her conduct was very poor; she flirted with my friends and gave attitude towards me with made me not enjoy my experience the way I wanted to. I feel as though when you are on the job your conduct should be very professional and you should speak to the customers formally and not informally. Therefore, many Bahamians have poor work ethics and this should be fixed immediately. In order for this country to grow progressively we must all work together to strengthen each other instead of victimizing people. We must also learn to believe in ourselves and work professionally when on the job.

Elementary Education Effectiveness

In the State of Mississippi there are 149 school districts; of those districts, one-hundred forty-five are accredited, three are on probation and four are under advisement. Mississippi consists of 437 elementary schools, 178 middle, 184 high schools and sixty combination elementary and secondary schools (MS Dept. of Education, 2005). In 2002, the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 was signed, mandating all Title I schools to be held accountable for the success of their students. Under this act; States must define minimum levels of improvement as measured by standardized tests chosen by the state.AYP targets must be set for overall achievement and for subgroups, economically disadvantaged students, limited English proficient (LEP) students and students with disabilities (2001). If a school fails to meet the above mentioned criteria a series of consequences follow. Once a school is labeled â€Å"in need of improvement†, the label remains until improvements are made and the require d achievement status is fulfilled for two consecutive years. If the school fails two years consecutively, the consequences become more severe. (Great Schools, 2006) Schools â€Å"in need of improvement† consequences:†¢ After two years of â€Å"in need of improvement† status, transfer options to a non-in need school within the district must be given to students. †¢ Three years of failed AYP the school must provide supplemental services such as tutoring as well as transfer options. †¢ Four consecutive years of failed AYP requires the school to implement one of the following: replace school staff, implement new curriculum, decrease authority of school level administration, appoint outside experts to advise the school, extended school year/day, restructure internal organization of school.This along with transfer and supplemental options. †¢ After five consecutive years of failing AYP the district must plan the restructuring of the school. These plans mu st include one of the following: reopen school as public charter school, replace all or most staff including principal, enter contract to have outside entity run school or arrange for the state to take over school operations. †¢ Six consecutive years of AYP failure requires implementing the previous years plan (Great Schools, online database). The delta region of Mississippi is considered the poorest areas in the state.It has been called the â€Å"Third World Country in America† (Mississippi Delta Report, 2001). The Mississippi Curriculum Test (MCT) is used to measure student mastery of skills and content for elementary grades two through eight, as outlined in the Mississippi Curriculum Frameworks (MS Dept. of Education, 2003). The Mississippi Board of Education identifies eight priorities necessary for improving student achievement; these priorities are: reading, early literacy, student achievement, leadership, safe/orderly schools, technology, and parent/community invo lvement (2003).Several strategies have been suggested to improve the performances of Mississippi schools; such as creating a more challenging curriculum, creating smaller classes, and increasing parental involvement (MS Dept. of Education, 2005). In 2002, â€Å"Reading First was passed into law by a bipartisan majority of Congress under the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001† (2002). Mississippi was given an eleven million dollar grant which would be used to: †¦help districts and schools improve student achievement in reading through the application of scientifically based reading research.Reading First will help States, districts and schools apply this research – and the proven instructional and assessment tools consistent with this research – to ensure that all children can read at grade level or above by the end of third grade (2002). Reading First had four priorities which included; 1) raising the caliber and quality of classroom instruction, 2) basing in struction on scientifically proven methods, 3) providing professional training for educators in reading instruction and 4) supplying substantial resources to support the unprecedented initiative.With the passing of this program several techniques have been implemented in the hopes of improving reading performances of Mississippi students. The following study, particularly the literature review will investigate existing strategies and the effectiveness of each. Several theories have been examined over the years in hopes of finding an effective strategy to improve student achievement. The teaching theory used as a basis for this study is the Measurement Theory, this theory represents teaching and achievement based on standardized tests and results.Statement of the Problem Mississippi consists of four-hundred and eighty-six thousand people living in poverty; ten percent of children belong to families that are not able to meet their needs (2005). Recent statistics show that those living in poverty are fifty-one percent African American and approximately forty-seven percent Caucasian (2005). Research has shown that the socioeconomic status of students influence the degree of success they will experience. (Donahue &Grigg, 2003) Mississippi has varying degrees of reading proficiency among school districts.In the 2003-2004 school year, six districts, consisting of one elementary school, five middle schools and one high school, were identified as â€Å"in need for improvement†, based on the reading and math proficiency of its students. For the purpose of this study, only schools reflecting a lack in reading proficiency will be discussed. The U. S. Secretary of Education, Margaret Spelling announced in a November 2005 press release, â€Å"Eighty percent of the fastest-growing jobs require at least some post secondary education.Yet far too many students are leaving high school unprepared for college†. Improved student achievement can provide students better preparation for college, thus closing the achievement gap. Low socioeconomic schools, although improving, are still behind the majority of middle-to-upper class schools in America (Donahue & Grigg, 2003). There are several factors to consider when looking at closing the achievement gap found in low socioeconomic schools.One factor is that â€Å"young, low-income and minority children are more likely to start school without having gained important school readiness skills, such as recognizing letters and counting† (2003). As Donahue and Grigg’s report showed, when students start school already behind others, they are likely to continue such patterns if not addressed early on. Existing studies demonstrate the problems researchers are having addressing literacy issues early on in a students academic career.Researches are trying to find appropriate strategies to combat the achievement gap with many variables which will be discussed further in detail, in the following study . Purpose of the Study The following is a detailed investigation into possible explanations of varying degrees of reading achievement found in Mississippi and what can be done to maintain a higher overall proficiency in reading among Mississippi students, while satisfying the requirements of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001.Many schools have chosen to implement a â€Å"school-wide approach† to closing the achievement gap; however, when dealing with schools consisting primarily of low-income students, there are other factors to consider when choosing a strategy. The proposed study will focus on improving reading skills in high-poverty schools found in Mississippi by comparing different techniques widely used and creating a more targeted strategy for low-income students. When deciding on an appropriate strategy for improving reading comprehension there are a few factors one must consider.The following questions will outline the factors to be researched in this study. Resear ch Questions 1. What impact does social economic status have on the achievement gaps found in the State of Mississippi? 2. What are the contributing factors found in Mississippi schools that are demonstrating low reading scores among economically disadvantaged students? 3. Are there high-poverty schools in Mississippi which demonstrate positive improvements in reading scores? What are the strategies used? 4. How does implementing Theory into Practice (TIP) encourage positive student achievement in disadvantaged schools?Hypothesis To affectively close low socioeconomic achievement gaps in reading, strong emphasis on establishing proficient reading ability should be made in elementary school. Nature of the Study The research conducted in this study will be an investigation of existing literature regarding techniques used in improving reading skills, exemplary schools demonstrating such techniques and finally, a suggested strategy to use when applying research to low socioeconomic scho ols with low reading proficiency found in Mississippi school districts.Significance of the Study The significance of this study is that by identifying factors contributing to the achievement gap found in low socioeconomic school districts, as well as investigating into existing programs that have had a positive influence on reading performance scores in other high-poverty schools is that, school administrators and policy makers will have a better basis in which to improve upon existing programs and interventions that would be more financially attainable than starting new programs.The high cost of starting new programs such as; creating new assessment strategies, providing more staff and researchers as well as other costly planning and implementing variables, often times are not practical for low-economic schools. While children of today are growing up in a world where data are being revealed at an alarming rate and knowledge is simply a click away, reading plays an increasingly cruc ial role in society (Topping & Paul, 1999).The ability to read is not only fundamental for understanding and mastery of every school subject students will encounter, but literacy also plays a critical and crucial role in students' social and economic lives (Snow, Bums, & Griffin, 1998). As a result, no other factor will have a greater impact on the success of students in Mississippi than their ability to read.With such an emphasis placed on the importance of reading achievement, educational leaders must clearly articulate the expectation that all students can become successful readers, while providing the most effective strategies and opportunities for students to succeed in reading and adopt lifelong reading practices. (Okpala, et al. , 2001) Definitions of Terms Action Team for Partnership- This partnership is also known as a School Improvement Team or a School Council.Although the ATP members oversee the school's partnership program, other teachers, parents, students, administrat ors, and community members also may lead family and community involvement activities (ATP website). Adequate Yearly Progress- AYP requires that schools hold the same high standards for all their students; regardless of racial or ethnic background, socioeconomic status and English proficiencyCore Academic Subjects- These subjects include: English, language arts and reading, arts, civics, government and history, mathematics and science, foreign languages, as well as, economics and geography. Elementary School- a nonprofit institution which includes, public school, day or residential school and elementary charter schools which State law mandated elementary education.Family Literacy Services – The services provided to participants on a voluntary basis that foster a positive change in families. These changes include, providing families with interactive activities between parents and child concerning literacy, teaching parents to take an active role in their children’s educa tion, teaching self-sufficiency by providing parental literacy training, and providing education to children which is age-appropriate and prepares them for school and life experiences.Highly Qualified (in reference to public elementary or secondary school teacher) – A highly qualified teacher will possess a State certification for teaching or holds a license to teach in a particular state due to passing the State exam and is employed in a teaching position after meeting all required testing, training and educational requirements satisfactory to the State, district and school regulations. Mentoring- A responsible elder who provides positive leadership and guidance to a child as a positive role model in that child’s life. A mentor mission is to help a child to one day become a responsible adult.Minority- a group of students which do not demonstrate the majority’s characteristics, such as socioeconomic status, ethnic background or other key characteristics. Other S taff- staff found within an institution such as personnel, guidance counselors, and administration and teachers aides. Limitations In her 2005 press release Secretary Spelling said, â€Å"we all hear a lot of stories about why schools are missing Adequate Yearly Progress, but we don’t hear much about how thousands of other schools are making it and closing the achievement gap†.This study is limited by location; its main concentration being primarily on Mississippi schools, programs and outcomes. The primary research method is investigating existing literature, as such; there is substantial literature on the failures of many schools trying to improve student achievement; however there is very little literature depicting success. One other limitation to consider is that this study focuses on reading proficiency; however; to get the most accurate depiction of a schools success is to consider all core academic subjects. Chapter TwoThe following literature focuses on how sc hools in the Mississippi School district and nationwide are implementing school improvement plans and closing the achievement gap. In School Improvement and Closing the Achievement Gap Report 2003-2004 the accountability of Mississippi Schools past and present is discussed (2004) and Craig Jerald, author of Dispelling the Myth discusses how nationwide high poverty, high minority schools have high achieving students (2001). Both reports will be discussed here. The researcher wanted to know how many high-poverty and high minority schools nationwide have high student performance.The study used the Education Trust Database to identify certain criteria. Over 4500 schools were analyzed. Each meeting the criteria set and performing well above the expectation (2001). Both papers discuss the achievement gap, more importantly they reported the areas of greatest improvement. The Achievement Gap Report (2004) focused on the Mississippi school districts. It gave an accountability report on those school districts that have been struggling, as well as providing a strategic outline to close the gap. Specific schools were used as models of for improving test scores.Dispelling the Myth (Jerald, 2001) focused on school districts nation wide. Although no reasons for poor school performance were given, the author did state that none of the schools were magnet schools. This report showed that most schools with high poverty, high minority students live in urban areas (2001). However, the more recently published Achievement Gap Report (2004) reported that some of the poorest schools are in rural areas. Dispelling the Myth (2001) looked at specific criteria for the study, whereas, the Achievement Gap Report (2004) did not.Both studies failed to look at specific schools and detail specific strategies used in improving the achievement gap. The Mississippi Achievement Gap Report (2004) plan made suggestions on how schools can improve, but a greater detail is needed to truly understand wh at each school did to improve scores. Model schools or a model program can be established based on greater research. Socioeconomic Influence Literature regarding reading programs was of most interest for this study. Several scientific journals addressed factors of low socioeconomic status and under achievement.The achievement gap found amongst low-income students was addressed in Education: The State We’re In (Donahue & Griggs, 2003). Substantial information was given on the obstacles facing high-poverty youth today. Reading proficiency among elementary school students of low-income families are at a disadvantage (2003). When studying low-income fourth graders, the author found that in 2003, across the nation, only fifteen percent are proficient in reading. The authors also demonstrated that the majority of low-income students read about three grades behind non-poor students (2003).Proficiency differences among races were briefly discussed; Similar disparities exist between w hite students and students of color; 39% of white 4th graders can read at the proficient level compared to only 12 % of African-American students and 14% of Latinos. Overall, about three in ten fourth graders can read proficiently, and this in itself is cause for concern. (2003) Parental Involvement, Instructional Expenditures, Family Socioeconomic Attributes, and Student Achievement (Okpala, et al, 2001).Parental involvement is a commonly discussed approach to establishing higher student achievement. A study done in North Carolina was based on three factors; (a) Instructional supplies expenditures will affect academic achievement positively; (b) the SES of students in a given school, measured by the percentage of students that participate in free/reduced-price lunch programs, will affect student achievement negatively; and (c) parental involvement that is measured by parental volunteer hours per 100 students will influence student achievement positively.These factors were beneficia l in understanding the SES influence on successful reading programs. These factors and the results of this particular study will be investigated further throughout this study. Implementing Change A very brief but informative piece, Evidence from Project Star About Class Size and Student Achievement (Folgers & Breda, 1989) addressed three specific questions to ask oneself when considering changing programs. The three questions were; 1) How effective will the change be? 2) How much will it cost and 3) what are the problems of implementation?(1989) All three of these questions were found to be valuable when assessing existing programs, as well as when considering the necessary factors when looking to improve upon them. The Gallup Poll (1989 Survey) was reported to have an overwhelming approval from parents when asked about reducing class size. The problem with this strategy is that â€Å"reducing class size substantially is very costly† (1989). A widely researched program invest igated during this study was the Accelerated Reader Program. One report (Melton, et. al. , 2004) demonstrated the uses and results of the AR program.By definition the Accelerated Readers program is â€Å"†¦a learning information system designed to heighten student interest in literature and to help teacher manage literature-based reading (McKnight, 1992). This study was particularly significant because it was conducted in two Jackson, Mississippi elementary schools. There has been extensive coverage of the AR program. A 2004 study compared the reading achievement growth of fifth graders following a year of participation in the AR program with other fifth graders who did not participate.The results demonstrated that students in the AR program actually scored significantly lower than non-participants. Although many studies show little to no benefits from the AR program, the program has provided a few guidelines; such guidelines include, 1) Engage students in large amount of read ing practice with authentic material 2) students should read at their own individual reading level, and 3) student incentives such as ribbons or extra recess improves the odds of a students success.By using computer technology, teachers can use the AR program to assess students reading level and invite and motivate students to read material they find interesting (Vollands, et al. , 1999). Students are given a choice of books suited to their particular reading level. Random multiple choice tests are given to test students’ comprehension of the material. In a National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (Dept. of Education) evaluation, AR programs and other computerized reading programs were reviewed (Chenowith, 2001).The lack of research on evaluated programs ability to produce long-term gains in reading achievement caused the National Institute to determine the AR programs did not meet standards (2001). Common complaints of the AR program include, 1) when the prog ram ended, participating students went back to reading less than before participating 2) the AR program limited the choice of books available to a student because certain books that were not accompanied by an AR test were not valid (Chenowith, 2001) and 3) AR encourages children to read for the wrong reasons, for example to win a prize (Carter, 1996).However, as Chenowith (2001) noted, many parents responded to the latter, that it did not matter why students read, as long as they were in fact reading. Topping and Paul (1999) found that with the proper educator training on the AR program, the odds of successful student achievement with the program will improve. Students already in at risk in reading before the AR program will gain positive results when AR is implemented (Vollands, Topping and Evans, 1999). â€Å"Many elementary schools have adopted programs which encourage authentic reading time and aid in the development of reading skills for life (Melton, et al., 2004). However, l ittle research has been conducted on individual, less costly programs (2004). When studying the effects of the AR program on African American students and white students in Mississippi, black students scored lower (2004). High School Statistics as a Basis for Increased Beginner Learning Although not the primary focus of this study, it is important to understand the future of elementary students by looking into current graduates predicaments.Over the last twenty years, there have been dramatic increases in high school promotion; as well as, in graduation requirements. Most recently, states and districts, such as Mississippi, have begun implementing graduation and end-of-course exams (Committee for Economic Development, 2000). Some critics have noted that the rise in standards and high-stakes tests will be unfair to students who have attended poorly resourced schools (Achieve, 2000). However, this problem has been met by offering extra help and supportive services to the students of t he disadvantaged schools (2001).One of the most common support methods has been to offer disadvantaged students more time; such as summer school, adding an extra year to their high school education and transition programs to ensure students can fulfill high school requirements (2001). Little progress has been made in developing a better curriculum and instructional support to aid in the acceleration of learning for disadvantaged high school (Balfanz, et al. , 2002). Some high schools have implemented a whole school reform by creating catch-up courses and district wide special prep courses (2002).These reforms have not been thoroughly evaluated because their infancy; using small, formative studies, thus little is known about the feasibility and rapidity of student acceleration in disadvantaged high schools. This study aims at taking the first step to in understanding the elementary school learning needs and providing appropriate teaching techniques for each schools situation; by repo rting on the initial results and impacts of the Talent Development High Schools (TDHS) ninth grade instructional program in reading and mathematics.The study involves several cities and multiple high-poverty, non-selective high schools within each city. Academic Models of Recognition Piney Woods School in Piney Woods, Mississippi has programs that should be viewed as national models. Although a private school, its strategies for success are practical and successful. The predominantly African American school is known for changing the lives of low-income students by having them â€Å"complete a rigid diet of reading, writing, math, science and foreign language† (Wooster, et al.2001). While requiring students work ten hours a week in order to teach them responsibility, Piney Woods School gives students a sense of unity and tough love. The programs implemented are; Writing Across the Curriculum, which trains freshman and sophomores’ in basic composition skills; Always Reac hing Upward, a peer tutoring program which pairs under achievers with high achievers and Save the Males, a tutoring, mentoring and special male focused groups that facilitate responsibility and self confidence.The results are phenomenal with a ninety five percentage rate of students going on to college after graduation and the other five percent going into military services. Analysis of existing achievement data in high-poverty high schools provides two conclusions. First, students who attend high-poverty high schools are typically performing below national norms and are dramatically short of the performance benchmarks employed to measure academic success.An analysis conducted by Education Week (1998) indicates, for example, that students entering high school in the majority of large cities are often found to be two or more years below grade level (Quality Counts ’98, 1998). In Philadelphia, for instance, seventeen percent of high school students attend one of twenty-two non- selective neighborhood schools (Neild & Balfanz, 2001); and approximately half of these students are reading below the fifth or sixth grade level. A quarter of these students are reading at the seventh or eighth grade level.Approximately one in four students attending a nonselective high school in Philadelphia read at grade level. In eight of the non-selective neighborhood schools in Philadelphia, a little over two thirds of first-time ninth graders are performing below the seventh grade level in both reading and mathematics (Neild & Balfanz, 2001). One important conclusion that can be drawn from this data is that in many non-selective urban schools students need accelerated learning opportunities.A second conclusion is that the current level of academic performance in disadvantaged high schools can lead to multiple negative consequences for students and society. It is too early to accurately gauge the impact of the high-stakes; standards based graduation tests and dropout rates of students entering high school with weak academic skills (Bishop & Mane, 2000; Hauser, 2001). Existing data from metropolitan cities such as Chicago (Roderick & Camburn, 1999) and Philadelphia, however, demonstrates a link between poor academic preparation and course failure; as well as the retention of many high-poverty students.Course failure and retention in the ninth grade has caused a high amount of high school drop outs. Forty-three percent of first-time freshmen in Philadelphia entering ninth grade with below seventh grade math and reading skills were not promoted to the tenth grade (Neild & Balfanz, 2001); in comparison to the eighteen percent of students entering ninth grade with math and reading skills above the seventh grade level. Student skills below grade level requirements result in retention, poor attendance, and course failure.First-time freshmen who were not promoted to the tenth grade had a dropout rate of nearly sixty percent when compared to a twelve percent drop out rate for students who were promoted (Neild, Stoner-Eby, & Furstenberg, 2001). The individual and social consequences of dropping out of high school are considerable. The Committee for Economic Development (2000) has documented the economic returns to advanced education. Non-promotion has become the norm in approximately two hundred-fifty to three hundred high schools, in thirty-five major cities in the United States (Balfanz & Legters, 2001).Sixty percent of the population in these public high schools is African American and Latino students in (2001). The United States Department of Education expresses the importance of raising graduation requirements and standards; therefore it is essential to the success of future high school students, that a means of improving reading proficiency is achieved. Contributing Factors to Student Achievement In 2001, the No Child Left Behind Act placed even stronger responsibility on states to raise student performance.As a result of these account ability standards, states must now administer standardized tests to â€Å"measure adequate yearly progress† of all students (2001). They face costly federal mandates and must submit comprehensive plans. The federal law also focuses on narrowing the achievement gap between races. It requires that states monitor the performance of racial and economic subgroups and undertake corrective action in failing schools (Wong, 2004). †¦states are implementing policies that provide incentives to attract and retain teachers and increase student performance.Incentives are helping states recruit new teachers into the work force, attract persons from outside education, retain teachers in the classroom and support accountability programs that focus on school-by-school efforts to boost student achievement (Cornett and Gaines, 2002). Researchers examining student performance consistently find that one of the most important influences on student achievement is socioeconomic status (SES) of s tudents. These findings give little comfort to educators in economically disadvantaged schools who are facing heavy pressure to improve performance and close the gap between minority and white students.Yet Verstegen and King (1998) claim that a growing body of research is using better databases and more sophisticated methodological strategies to provide evidence that school policies can make a positive difference in student outcomes. They also emphasize that resource patterns that optimize performance in one setting do not necessary work in others. Encouraged by this line of thinking, the researcher will investigate factors that may explain the differences in performances in schools that share a common socioeconomic context.Are there choices made by policymakers and administrators in economically disadvantaged schools that spark significant improvements in performance in these schools? In this study, the researcher will assume the significance of SES or â€Å"input† factors i n explaining achievement, and the researcher considers the impact of other factors over which schools have some control. Impact of Process Variables Although the statistical models will include measures for SES (percent of economically disadvantaged students and percent white students), the focus will be on process variables.The latter include those variables that school systems more or less control. The researcher categorizes these variables into three general areas: 1) school class size 2) school policies and 3) proven effective programs to increase student reading proficiency. One of the most controversial characteristics of schools is the amount of students per teacher (FTE). Production function research on the effects of school size has been inconclusive, and both sides have their advocates. Supporters of small schools contend that students get more attention, school governance is simpler, and teachers and administrators are more accessible to parents.Noguera (2002) states that in high schools where the majority of low-income students of color are achieving at high levels the one common characteristic is the small size of the schools. Lee and Burkam found that students are less likely to drop out of schools with fewer than 1,500 students (2003). However, others argue that large schools are able to offer students a wider range of educational offerings and services (â€Å"Still Stumped,† 2002). Recent research indicates that the effects of school size may depend on the SES of students.Findings show consistently that the relationship between achievement and socioeconomic status was substantially weaker in smaller schools than larger schools, that is, students from impoverished communities are much more likely to benefit from smaller schools. On the other hand, a positive relationship exists between larger schools and the output measures of affluent students (Lee and Smith, 1996; Howley and Bickel, 1999). Because this study will examine the performance of economically disadvantaged students, the researcher expects to find a negative relationship between school size and achievement scores.That is, the larger the school, the less likely students are to achieve on standardized tests. The relationship between class size and positive student achievement is another relationship that has been closely studied. In 2000, Congress allocated $1. 3 billion for class size reduction as a provision of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) (Johnson, 2002). Most of the studies that examine the effect of class size on student performance have focused on primary schools.One of the largest and most scientifically rigorous experiments was the 1985, Tennessee’s Student Achievement Ratio (STAR) study. The STAR project provides compelling evidence that smaller classes can improve student achievement, especially in primary schools, which could have lasting effects (1985). The four year longitudinal study focused on classes in Tennessee and consisted of grades kindergarten through third. Classes of thirteen to seventeen students were compared to classes of twenty-two to twenty-six students; of the total classes, some had just one teacher and some had a teacher and aid.Phase one included over three hundred classes and a total of 6500 students (1985). The result after four years was positive support for the reduction of classroom sizes which proved to have positive effects on student achievement. Some critics have pointed out the limitations of project STAR (Vinson, 2002). A couple of limitations listed in a report by Tony Vinson in 2002 were: 1) limiting sample of certain cultural groups 2) schools volunteered to participate in the study, suggesting they had motivation to use innovative teaching practices.In 1996, Mostellar, a statistician, reported; â€Å"the Tennessee Class Size study demonstrates convincingly that student achievement is better in small K-3 classes and the effect continues later in regular-sized classes (1996). In a follow-up study, Nye, Hedges and Kontantopoulos (1999) found that students of smaller class size continued showing significant advantages over students of regular-sized classes, throughout school, to graduation. These students demonstrated higher grades, took more challenging classes, had better graduation rates and were more likely to go on to college (Vinson, 2002).Wisconsin’s Student Achievement Guarantee in Education (Vinson, 2002), began in the 1996-1997 school year and was expanded in 1998-1999 and again in 2000-2001 (Wisconsin Dept. of Public Instruction). The objective of the program is to improve student achievement through the implementation of four school improvement strategies: class sizes no more than 15:1 in grades K-3; increased collaboration between schools and their communities; implementation of a rigorous curriculum focusing on academic achievement; and improving professional development and staff evaluation practices.Schools in SAGE ha ve renewable 5-year contracts with the state and get state aid equal to $2,000 for each low-income child in the grades served by the program. During 2005-06 495 schools participated in SAGE (up from 30 when the program began). Just over 93,000 K-3 pupils were served. State funding, which was $4. 5 M in 96-97 will be $98. 6 M in 2006-07. A few districts are also benefiting from a state categorical aid program created in 1999 to help schools pay debt service on the cost of new classrooms built to accommodate SAGE (DPI).The SAGE program in partnership with John Hopkins University of Baltimore Maryland, invites, states or districts to become members in improving the student achievement in the potential members’ schools. Through the National Network of Partnership Schools, SAGE and others in the network will work states, districts and other educational organization members to form an Action Team for Partnership plan. Members follow the Six Types of Involvement format (NNPS online) . Five years of NNPS surveys and result focused studies on member schools’ progress has been reported (2005).NNPS uses research results to develop practical tools, materials, and guidelines for schools and school districts. Presently, over 1000 schools, 100 districts, and 17 state departments of education are working with NNPS to use research-based approaches to establish and strengthen their programs of school, family, and community partnerships (2005). It is suggested that incorporating the following elements create better programs and outreaching to parents of the students and increased parental involvement (2005). 1. Leadership 2. Teamwork 3.Action plans 4. Implementation of plans 5. Funding 6. Collegial support 7. Evaluation 8. Networking Results from longitudinal studies showed that â€Å" a review of literature on family involvement with students on reading, indicated that, across the grades, subject specific interventions to involve families in reading and related la nguage arts, positively affected students’ reading skills and scores (Sheldon & Epstein, 2005b). The original SAGE pilot program research involved participants of which fifty percent were below the poverty level (Vinson, 2002).Participating classes were reduced from average size to fifteen students per teacher. An evaluation by Molinar, Smith and Zahorik (1999) revealed that the first grade SAGE students demonstrated higher achievement when compared to nonparticipating schools in both language arts and math. Second and third graders were reported to follow the same pattern. The third study to be reviewed is the Prime Time (1984) project in Indiana. This was originally planned to be a two year project started in 1984 but it had such promising results that by 1988 all k-3 classes were reduced in Indiana.The average FTE was eighteen. In 1989, McGivern, Gilman and Tillitski compared samples of achievement levels of second graders from six districts with reduced class sizes and th ree districts that were not reduced and found significantly larger gains in reading and math among students of smaller classes. As with project STAR, SAGE has suffered criticism. Limitations mentioned were that â€Å"students were not assigned to experimental control groups on a random basis†, and that school policies were changed and implemented during the course of the study (Vinson, 2002).A widely criticized factor was the use of teacher incentives to motivate small classroom achievement. As mentioned previously, opinions on class size vary. Over the years several researchers have analyzed studies and evaluated the effectiveness of each. Glass and Smith (1979) found after analyzing seventy-seven empirical studies on class size versus student achievement, that small classes were associated with higher achievement at all grade levels.For greatest results in student achievement, students should attend small classes for over one-hundred hours (1979), with under twenty students . Small classes are beneficial because of 1) better student reaction 2) teacher morale and 3) quality of the teaching environment (Vinson, 2002). In a review of one-hundred relevant studies, small classes had been the most beneficial, during kindergarten and third grade, but only if teachers change their methods and procedures (Robinson and Wittebols, 1986).Slavin’s (1990) research of empirical studies, were chosen for analysis based on a three part criteria; 1) class size had been reduced for at least one year 2) twenty students were compared to substantially larger class sizes and 3) students in both class sizes were comparable (1990). Contrary to previously mentioned researchers, Slavin believed that smaller class size had minimal positive effects on students and those effects did not continue once students were returned to normal, larger classes (1990).A highly published researcher, Eric Hanushek has voiced his opposition to small classes benefiting student achievement si nce the mid-1980s. In all his reviews of class size studies, he’s always concluded that; â€Å"The evidence about improvements in student achievement that can be attributed to smaller classes turns out to be meager and unconvincing (Vinson, 2002)†. Johnson (2000), citing a study at the Heritage Foundation examining National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) reading data, asserted that the difference in reading assessment scores between students in small classes and students in large classes was insignificant.He criticized class size reduction programs citing California as example of how such programs exacerbate the problem of lack of qualified teachers to fill classrooms. His claim of the lack of association between class size and performance was consistent with Hanushek’s conclusions (1999). Studies of the effects of class size in secondary schools are much more rare and largely equivocal (Deutsch 2003; Grissmer 1999). Many of those who advocate for sma ller class sizes at the secondary level argue that small classes positively impact the school environment, thus, improving performance indirectly.In her review of the literature of class size and secondary schools, Deutsch (2003) highlights studies that conclude small classes stimulate student engagement, allow more innovative instructional strategies, increase teacher-student interactions, reduce the amount of time teachers devote to discipline, improve teacher morale, and minimize feelings of isolation and alienation in adolescence that can come from anonymity. Another important process variable the researcher will investigate is the effects of school policy on student achievement.An influential policy becoming common in schools is that of parental support and teacher incentives. As with the other factors in this model, conclusions about the effects of both on student performance has been mixed, but recent studies seem to point to more positive correlations, particularly teacher e xperience (Hedges, Lane, and Greenwald 1994). Mississippi’s Department of Education’s Schools and Parents Partnering for Student Success is a brochure given to the parents of Mississippi public school students to educate them on what level of proficiency their child should be on in an attempt to form a relationship between school and home.Strategies for improving student achievement according to Mississippi’s School Improvement and Closing the Achievement Gap Report 2003-2004 include: †¢ Strong parental involvement †¢ Community and church support †¢ Various reform models aligned to state curriculum †¢ Dedicated teachers †¢ Structured teaching †¢ Thinking maps †¢ Stable staff †¢ Comprehensive systems to monitor student progress †¢ Aligned curriculum, assessment, and instruction †¢ Peer coaches†¢ Instructional time that is increased (2004) As the reader will notice, the majority of these strategies incorporate relationships between the school and outside sources for example parental and community involvement. These strategies were created by schools in Mississippi demonstrating high student achievement. Finally, the researcher will also examine the effects of global resources, that is, per pupil expenditure (PPE), on the impact of performance.In their review of production function research, Verstegen and King cite Hedges, Laine, and Greenwald’s assertion (1994) that â€Å"Global resource variables such as PPE, show positive, strong, and consistent relations with achievement† (1995, 57-58). However, other studies fail to yield significant results (Chubb and Moe 1990; Okpala 2002). Tajalli, in his examination of the wealth equalization or â€Å"Robin Hood† program in Texas, found that the transfer of nearly $3. 4 billion of dollars to poor school districts did not have a significant impact on the improvement of performance in these districts (Tajalli, 2003).It may be t hat expenditures in general have an indirect effect that is not apparent when using PPE as a direct measure. In his study of school spending Wenglinsky (1997) develops a â€Å"path† in which he concludes a school’s economic resources are associated with academic achievement. He posits that per-pupil expenditures on instruction and central office administration are positively related to class size, i. e. , more spending on smaller classes. Smaller teacher/student ratios contribute to a cohesive school environment, which enhances achievement. Chapter ThreeDescription of Methodology This study is a comparative analysis of eight Mississippi elementary schools from seven school districts; two K-2, two K-3 and four K-5. Factors analyzed were the students to teacher ratio (FTE), socioeconomic status (SES), and student ethnicity, and comparison MCT scores. At first a total of twenty schools were randomly chosen from different districts. The researcher then chose eight schools of conflicting SES percentages. It is a comparative study using the case analysis method; since it attempts to compare school factors influencing student performance.Using the Mississippi Academic Excellence Indicator System (AEIS) data, the researcher will examine these variables to determine the elements that can impact success or failure of public school campuses. The measure of performance is the standardized test given in 2005 to students in Mississippi public schools, the MCT. The researcher focused the study on Mississippi elementary schools that are predominantly populated by students who come from economically disadvantaged backgrounds. The socioeconomic status was based on the percentage of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunches.The teaching theory used as a basis for this study is the Measurement Theory, this theory represents teaching and achievement based on standardized tests and results. Validity and Reliability The MCT scores are provided by the Mississi ppi Department of Education, and the demographics of each school were provided by the NCES found on the greatschools. com database. Twenty schools were chosen by random; then eight were chosen for analysis based on conflicting SES factors in order to get realistic insight as to the influence of student success factors on each school size.This study has limitations due to the fact that it is based on MCT scores which can be deceiving. These tests have been criticized by researchers because they do not portray a student’s overall understanding of a subject and do not allow for different learning abilities and styles. It is because of this limitation that further study should be conducted on the achievement levels of students based on different approaches to classroom learning. Sample and Population Three samples were used for this study. Sample one consisted of two schools serving grades K-2; each school was from a different district.Sample two consisted of two schools which se rved K-3 and were from two separate districts. Finally, the third sample consisted of four K-5 schools, from two different districts. Overall, seven districts and eight schools of different sizes in the state of Mississippi were compared. The study specifically seeks to identify variables in low performing schools that could hinder them from improving performance. In order to provide an accurate study, the researcher took samples from different sized schools with different student demographics.Implementation Research was conducted by recording data for each school for a side-by-side comparison of different factors (see Appendix). All factors were found through greatschools. com, which summarizes each school’s characteristics for easy research. All school samples were then analyzed for the reading achievement average. Based on the average, the researcher then examined the achievement factors; determining whether there was a trend between any of the achievement factors and the MCT results of the chosen school samples.Factors compared during analysis were; socioeconomic status (SES), student-per-teacher ratios (FTE), and the percentage of nonwhite students. The MCT scores for 2005 were used as an indicator of overall reading proficiency of the chosen school. In order to determine whether a variable was a consistent influence on the MCT scores, three consecutive years of MCT scores from 2003-2005 were analyzed. The overall study aimed to discover a consistent pattern between a variable, such as SES or FTE, and the level of reading proficiency.Data Analysis Two of the three samples were consistent with the researcher’s hypothesis that SES is a strong influence on reading proficiency. Sample 1 however was uncharacteristic of the other two. In Sample 1, both schools demonstrated above the state average in MCT reading scores, however, the school with the highest SES percentage actually did better. This is uncharacteristic since Sample 2 and Sample 3 demo nstrated a trend in high SES and low MCT scores for three consecutive years.As discussed in chapter two, the literature review, the influence of class size on student achievement has been an on going debate among researchers. For this reason, the researcher included student-per-teacher ratios as a sample variable. The researcher had expected to see some evidence of FTE influence reflected in the MCT scores; however, that was not the case. According to the data collected, the FTE of all three samples ranged between fifteen and seventeen, with the state average being fifteen. The results demonstrated no reoccurring trend between FTE and MCT scores.Sample 1 schools demonstrated varying above average MCT scores and the same FTE of seventeen. In Sample 2, School 1A demonstrated a below average MCT score with a FTE of fifteen; however, 2B had higher test scores and a higher FTE. In Sample 3, all but one of the schools had a FTE of Seventeen, 3B demonstrated a FTE of fifteen and a below av erage MCT score. School 4B had below average MCT scores but a FTE of seventeen, like the remaining two schools with higher MCT scores. Between all three samples, there was no reoccurring trend between MCT scores and FTE.The researcher had expected student ethnicity to play a large role in student achievement levels, however based on this studies samples, there was little proof that such a trend existed. As demonstrated in Appendix A through C, schools demonstrating low achievement scores varied in the percentage of nonwhite students. The same variations were found in schools with high achievement scores. Overall, the only achievement factor that demonstrated a trend was the socioeconomic status factor. SES as a factor of achievement was present in Samples 2 and 3, but seemed irrelevant in Sample 1.Based on the results and the uncharacteristic trends found in Sample 1, the researcher feels that the quality of the curriculum and teaching strategies had an influence of the high achieve ment levels found in Sample 1. The researcher feels strongly that SES is an influential factor on the reading achievement of elementary students in Mississippi. It must be noted however, the influence of SES can be minimized with the proper curriculum and learning strategies. MCT scores give educators insight into the overall achievement levels of students, and should be used as an indicator of what type of teaching strategy should be used.There are numerous ways to improve student achievement. Educators and school administrators must be aware of the learning abilities and potentials of students and gear curriculum and teaching strategies towards the needs of the students. References Achieve (2001). 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