Police Discretion Essay

Police discretion is an unwritten law meaning it is not concretely represented in the constitution or any other rules or regulations governing law enforcement. However, it is a practical part of law enforcement because there are times when sound personal judgment and decision-making becomes necessary in the process. Police discretion is highly important in situations wherein the role of rules and laws are ambiguous or inapplicable. Although unwritten in documents presenting laws, it is valid because the police is an institution granted authority and power. Moreover, law enforcement agencies are expected to abide by ethics and morality at all times when practicing police discretion. Police discretion is valid because it is exercised by an authority or power, but then it becomes steadfast and trustworthy if it is practiced within the bounds of ethics and morality. (Atherton, 2001) Herein lay judgments and criticisms regarding police discretion. Police discretion is ideally utilized to determine whether to intercede with behavior and activities. This is supposed to be the primary purpose of police discretion. (Seri, 2008) For instance, a police man happens to chance upon a man shouting at his wife in a public place. Police discretion concerns making the decision of whether to intervene in the process with considerations to privacy issues since it is a private matter between husband and wife, but since it is in public, the situation’s relation to public disturbance is not something to be disregarded. At this point, police discretion addresses the matter of whether to intervene or not. (Kelling, 1999) The fabled and fictitious source aspect of police discretion is its relation to the philosophical foundations of ethics and morality. Conflicts in the practice of police work require discretion for its resolution. However, conflicts and ambiguities do not depend on just discretion, but count on morality to frame the judgment and decision-making process in order to uphold sound preferences when carrying out decisions. Morality talks about what is right from wrong – the right, based on the rules and commandments presented by God to man. Moreover, morality talks about intention as a primary factor in determining the goodness of an action, behavior or decision. This philosophical concept builds on what police discretion is about, guiding judgments and rationalizations in order to arrive at a morally good action. (Greenawalt, 1987) Perhaps it is rational to include the mythical concept of ethics and morality in framing police discretion guidelines and policies. Controlling philosophical concepts as a means to guide police discretion practices ensure that intentions are upright and the end action of the decision is morally good. This upholds accountability and values development in the field of law enforcement. Moreover, it addresses the matter of debate regarding the negative implications of allowing law enforcement agencies freedom to make decisions in their line of industry. It eliminates the abuse of power, and shifts it to the use of police discretion conscientiously. Another purpose of police discretion is making a decision of whether to label a particular action, behavior, or activity as criminal. (Seri, 2008) Juvenile crimes are primary targets of this issue since charging children with crimes is a sensitive concern. If for instance a police man catches a minor stealing from a grocery store, police discretion is practiced to make a decision on whether to charge the child with a criminal case. Other options include giving the child a chance by advising him to not repeat the act again and then letting him go, talking with the child’s parents directly to ensure that a the negative nature of the child does not go undisciplined, turning the child over to social welfare services, and charging the child with a criminal case. The decision of what to do in this particular scenario as well as similar situations, wherein there are opportunities of making sound judgments and decisions unguided by laws, is part of police discretion. Overall, police discretion is a power granted to members of the law enforcement as a means of raising the accountability of the institution by empowering them to learning and applying sound and moral concepts that promotes progress and development in the field of law enforcement. (Seri, 2008) To delineate further the concept of police discretion, five police actions will be discussed and analyzed in order to determine the expediency of practicing police discretion and identifying whether it is reasonable or an abuse of power. Harnessing the influence of the community as an effort to promote community policing is one task that law enforcement should work on. This is reasonable as the decision to formulate a neighborhood watch program to realize the goal of community policing sustains peace, order and security in the community. This action becomes an abuse of power if members of the community are forced to help in the process of enforcing laws. Community policing should be a voluntary effort. Minors are given light sanctions for criminal activities because of their inability to think rationally and independently without guidance from people in authority. Police discretion is acceptable when it comes to adjusting the enforcement of law to a particular situation where a minor is concerned. Police discretion becomes an abuse of power if minors who are caught committing crimes are directly charged with criminal cases without reviewing the need for social work intervention, counseling, and other lighter sanctions and disciplinary actions. When it comes to police interrogation, questioning techniques is part of police discretion. Policemen are given authority to subject suspects, witnesses, and victims to interrogations. Police discretion is acceptable if questions, in whatever form or manner executed, are relevant to the case and properly carried out in the process. It becomes abuse of power if people who are being interrogated are subject to threats and hostilities, forced to answer questions, and are asked personal matters. This goes the same with searching properties to look for evidence. Police discretion is deciding what areas within the properties to search, of course with the grant of a search warrant. It becomes an abuse of power if damage is inflicted to property as a means of hostile interaction with other people. Lastly, respecting the privacy of any individual should be maintained by law enforcement agencies. Although sustaining laws requires the obtainment of truth and factual information, police work should also consider privacy of other people in order to practice police discretion ideally and not abusively.

Organizational Behaviorâ€A Definition Essay

Stephen P. Robbins states in the â€Å"Organizational Behavior 9/e† textbook that Organizational Behavior is a field of study, because many people in the organizational field spend time examining the behavior of people (p.1) . I learned in my prior Organizational Behavior class in undergraduate school, that Organizational Behavior is a â€Å"fractional field† of study because of the various disciplines that it encompasses. There are disciplines such as Psychology, Sociology, Anthropology, and Economics, along with applied fields of study such as Industrial Psychology, Political Science, Labor Relations, Human Resource Management, and Organizational Development. For this reason, it is an â€Å"Applied Science.† Organizations themselves are ever changing, as are the people in them. The organizations adapt to change better than the people do. People are resistant to change, and are comfortable with what they know from past behaviors. Robbins states that, â€Å"thre e major aspects of behavior† are focused on when examining the behavior of people in work settings. The three aspects are â€Å"individuals, groups, and structures (p.1).† When examining individuals, there are three topics that are researched. These are how personality, attitudes, and motivation affect work (p.1). There is a lot of attention being paid to the behavior of employees of groups, because of the evolution of team formation over the last few years. Robbins states that people â€Å"work under a certain structure (p. 1).† This is where socialization and the organizational culture affect employees. Socialization is where an employee joins an organization, and forms expectations about what the organization will do for them, plus what they will do for the organization. The organizational culture is developed over time, and is a â€Å"pattern of shared values and beliefs.† There should be a fit between culture, people, tasks, strategy, and structure. This is why the research on Organizational Behavior is more of a â€Å"systematic study† than just relying on â€Å"intuition† alone (p. 1). It is believed that Organizational Behavior and Organizational Culture are tied together, and when the t wo are combined, the outcomes may affect performance. The best example that I have of Organizational Behavior, Culture, and Socialization being tied together in a work setting is when I worked for the Nutrition and Food Service (N&FS) Department a several years ago. The employees in the medical center kitchen were bonded together by  time in job. Most of the staff had been working together for years. They were not receptive to new employees, and I always loved to work. There were two or three â€Å"clicks† or groups. I was lucky and ended up with the â€Å"good employees† that liked to work. There was one group that were WG-3s and they thought that they were high enough in the organization that they did not have to do anything. I would do all of my work, and two other ladies, Carol, and Geraldine, would all get together and clean stock rooms and walk-in coolers. I had been told to slow down, because I was making the older people look bad to the supervisor. I told them that they were making themselves look bad. When I got a full-time job above some of the part-timers that had been there for years, I was â€Å"black-balled.† I had to tell my husband (married at the time) that they may call and tell him that I was having an affair (their favorite thing to do), and that he just had to ignore them. The old VA culture was one that employees could stand around and do nothing, while a few employees did everything. After a few employees of that service got fired, they learned that it was a â€Å"right to work† agreement and most have started to pick up the pace in recent years. Since I have been out of that job, I see the employees at break, and realize how much all have in common. I am in a wild position at this time. I have just learned that I was qualified for a job as a Supervisor in N&FS and am going to be scheduled for an interview. Since I know their past behaviors, I bet some of them are really hoping that I do not get the job, and the ones that told me to slow down, I bet they are really hoping that I do not get the job. References http://guest:guest@webct.prenhall.com/SCRIPT/Behavior/scripts/student/serve_page?920055142+Chapter1/notes3.htm. Robbins, Stephen P., 2002. Accessed from the Internet on March 5, 2002. Notes from prior Organizational Behavior lecture class from East Tennessee State University, 2000.

Brain Tumour Glioblastoma Multiforme Problem Health And Social Care Essay

GBM normally affects people who older than 50 old ages old although the disease can happen in patients from all age group [ 2,25,28 ] . Patients suffer ictus, concern, ocular perturbation and sometimes personality alterations which can do great emotional hurt [ 25,30,31 ] . The average endurance of GBM patients is hapless, with about 12 to 14 months [ 7 ] . At this minute, the exact causes of GBM still remain vague to the scientists. Figure 1 GBM tumor is normally found in frontal and temporal lobe. Beginning: hypertext transfer protocol: //ebsco.smartimagebase.com/brain-tumor/view-item? ItemID=4027 Accumulative Word Count: 131 Possible Treatments Surgery Surgery is normally the initial measure to handle GBM by taking every bit much tumor as possible. It is non healing but aims to cut down the tumor ‘s size every bit much as possible so that other therapies right after the surgery can be more effectual. Furthermore, surgical resection Acts of the Apostless to alleviate hydrops by debulking tumor every bit good as being a alleviative intervention for neurologic symptoms such as ictus activity [ 7 ] . The surgery includes standard surgical process craniotomy which removes a subdivision of skull to expose the encephalon underneath in order to unclutter the tumor. Besides, patients may choose to undergo optical maser microsurgery or supersonic aspiration to hold their tumors removed. 2 1 3 4 Figure 2 Craniotomy hypertext transfer protocol: //ebsco.smartimagebase.com/surgical-craniotomy/view-item? ItemID=40345 Accumulative Word Count: 242 Radiation Therapy Normally, radiation therapy ( RT ) is administered instantly after surgery. It works chiefly by damaging the Deoxyribonucleic acid of tumor cells, killing any residuary tumor cells after surgical remotion of the tumour [ 3-6,32 ] . A research has shown that the average endurance clip has increased from 17 hebdomads ( treated with conventional attention ) to 37.5 hebdomads when the GBM patients were treated with RT entirely while combination of BNCU ( carmustine ) and RT produced a 40.5 hebdomad average endurance [ 11 ] . Table 1 Randomized surveies of post-operative radiation compared with no radiation therapy in malignant gliomaa [ 23 ] Study [ Ref. ] Study group Radiation dose Gy/ no. of fraction No. of patients randomized ( analyzed ) Median endurance ( hebdomads ) Overall endurance P value Shapiro et al. , 1976 [ 62 ] Connecticut RT + CT – 60 16 ( 16 ) 17 ( 17 ) 30 44.5 NR Not important Andersen, 1978 [ 1 ] Surgery entirely RT – 45/25 57 ( 57 ) 51 ( 51 ) 15b 23b †¹0.005 Survival at 6 months Walker et al. , 1978 [ 78 ] vitamin D Surgery entirely RT – 50-60/25-35 42 ( 31 ) 93 ( 68 ) 14c 36c 0.001 Walker et al. , 1980 [ 79 ] vitamin D Connecticut RT – 60/30-35 111 ( 111 ) 118 ( 118 ) 31 37 0.003 Kristiansen et al. , 1981 [ 36 ] vitamin D Surgery entirely RT + / – Connecticut – 45/25 38 ( 38 ) 80 ( 80 ) 23 47 NR Significant Sandberg-Wollheim et al. , 1991 [ 60 ] Connecticut RT + CT – 58/27 87 ( 87 ) 84 ( 84 ) 42 62 0.028 a CT, chemotherapy ; NR, non reported ; RT, radiation therapy. B Calculated from survival curve. 500 Multi-arm survey that included a radiation plus chemotherapy arm. For both surveies by Walker et al. , merely information from the radiation entirely arm are shown in Table 2. Kristiansen et Al. reported combined informations from the radiation entirely arm and the radiation plus chemotherapy arm. In each of these surveies, there was a important survival benefit favouring radiation plus chemotherapy compared with no radiation therapy but no important difference in endurance between radiation entirely and radiation plus chemotherapy ( informations non shown ) . degree Celsiuss Merely consequences for the evaluable patients were reported ( 31 patients in the surgery entirely arm and 68 patients in the RT arm ) . Accumulative Word Count: 329 RT is normally administered through external beam radiation but internal radiation called Brachytherapy is besides possible. Each manner differs in how the radiation beginnings are delivered to the tumour [ 4-6,32 ] . Using IMRT ( Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy ) , a machine such as additive gas pedal delivers precise high-energy radiation doses ( eg: X raies ) to the tumor accurately and kills the affected cells [ 6,33 ] . Most patients will have the intervention for five to seven hebdomads [ 6,32,34 ] . Typically, around 6000 to 6500 units of radiation are delivered over seven hebdomads [ 6 ] . In contrast, brachytherapy topographic point the radiation beginnings every bit near as possible to the targeted cells in shorter clip comparison to external radiation. It consists of radioactive implants in the signifier of catheters or seeds which has impermanent radioactive beginnings in the tumor [ 8 ] . Figure 3 Brachythrapy hypertext transfer protocol: //ebsco.smartimagebase.com/brachytherapy/view-item? ItemID=24923 Besides, stereotactic radiosurgery, a noninvasive method of presenting an intense and focused dosage of radiation to a little country can be used for GBM excessively. Treatment dose is individualized but the typical dosage is about 2500 units of radiation per intervention [ 6 ] . Other signifiers of radiation intervention such as installing of inflatable balloon incorporating liquid radiation or interpolation of monoclonal antibodies tagged with radioactive substances may be used [ 8 ] . Accumulative Word Count: 519 Chemotherapy Chemotherapy may be given after surgical resection and radiation. In this therapy, chemotherapeutic drugs play an of import function in impacting retroflexing cells by damaging the Deoxyribonucleic acid of these cells. The most normally used drugs are carmustine ( BNCU ) , lomustine ( CCNU ) , temozolomide ( Temodar ) and procarbazine. They are classified as alkylating agents which are DNA-damaging drugs. These drugs alkylate the Deoxyribonucleic acid in the tumor cells, doing the dual strands to be cross-linked to each other in an inappropriate manner. This thereby, blocks DNA reproduction and bit by bit leads to cell decease [ 4,5,8 ] . Soon, Gliadel Wafer – a biodegradable wafer soaked with BNCU is prevailing among the interventions. This is done by engrafting wafers in the pit after surgical remotion of the tumor. The wafers so easy let go of high concentrations of BCNU straight into the tumour country over a period of 2-3 hebdomads. Gliadel does non supply a remedy for GBM but is believed to be capable of protracting endurance. Apart from that, temozolomide is more frequently administered orally on monthly rhythm for 6-12 months after surgery and radiation as a care therapy [ 6,8,28,29 ] . Traditional chemotherapy drugs can be effectual, but most of them do non separate between healthy and tumour cells, thereby forestalling the disposal of high doses to kill the unnatural cells. What is more, their generalised toxicity can do terrible side effects. Targeted therapy drugs like Avastin ( bevacizumab ) are more precise than some chemotherapy drugs and tend to hold fewer side effects. It has been approved by FDA in 2009 as a new biologic drug to handle GBM. Avastin acts chiefly as an angiogenesis inhibitors by decelerating the growing of new blood vass environing the tumor. It selectively blocks VEGF to suppress the activation of VEGF receptors tyrosine kinases VEGFR1 and VEGFR2 [ 13-15 ] . There are some surveies to turn out that approximately 20-30 % patients with GBM do react to the drugs [ 27 ] . Accumulative Word Count: 823 A Graph 1 Kaplan-Meier endurance curves for patients treated with steroids and ( A ) resective surgery merely, ( B ) resective surgery and radiation therapy and ( C ) resective surgery, radiation therapy and chemotherapy. [ 12 ] Bacillus C Accumulative Word Count: 848 Social and Economic Deductions The trouble to digest with the side effects of the medicines such as sleepiness and hair loss may do GBM patients to experience down and hurt. They may be easy frustrated by concerns they suffer often or experience suffering and hopeless after the diagnosing [ 34 ] . This could take to serious societal impact and would worry the people around them. Furthermore, most of the patients find it hard to return to work due to decrease in productiveness. A study has shown that with 91 % patients were employed before diagnosing, merely 33 % of them continue working after interventions. While health professionals who were still working experience employment alterations such as taking leave of absence to be with their loved 1s for interventions or taking on extra paid work might experience stressed and have to fight difficult to get by with the tough life [ 9 ] . In order to run a normal life, patients require undergo a plentifulness of interventions including hospitalization after surgery which would do great fiscal load. It is estimated that cost of GBM interventions ranged from ˆ10 893 to ˆ125 275 [ 22 ] . Trouble of obtaining insurance makes the status even worse. Drugs that are necessary for GBM interventions are expensive and are normally administered over long period of clip. All this becomes a beginning of depression which affects non merely the patients but their households and friends [ 9 ] . The return of GBM after conventional therapy is inevitable. This so creates unstoppable medical crisis every bit good as fiscal hurt to the patients and their households. Accumulative Word Count: 1084 Benefits and Hazards I believe a combination of surgery, radiation therapy and chemotherapy is the most effectual intervention for GBM presently. In malice of its forecast has remained hapless for the last few decennaries, patients do acquire better after adhering to this standard therapy. Although GBM can non be cured, the patients had have their survival clip prolonged, acquiring a opportunity to pass their last few months with their loved 1s in a meaningful manner [ 34 ] . Nevertheless, the interventions do enforce distressing side effects to human wellness. Despite killing tumour cells, alkylating agents used are considered toxic, ensuing in suppression or lowering of blood counts. They have been associated with important sickness, hair loss, weariness and sterility [ 5 ] . High doses of BNCU may take to damage and marking of the lungs while procarbazine can do raging concern, purging and numbness. Hence, doses of drugs administered have to be carefully monitored by doctor to avoid taking to unwanted effects. Recently invented drugs temozolomide, has comparatively mild side effects but they are still inevitable [ 6 ] . Meanwhile, hazard of developing acute leukaemia old ages subsequently is increased when patients are exposed to alkylating agents [ 5 ] . Avastin, a freshly developed drug, provides a more effectual therapy for GBM. However, it potentially creates fatal toxicity, doing the late closed surgical lesion interruptions down. Some claim that the development of toxicity by avastin may shorten endurance in some patients when it is added to radiotherapy and temozolomide. Thus, researches on the effectivity and safety of use of avastin should be carried on continually until desirable consequences are obtained [ 20 ] . In add-on, the return of the tumor is ineluctable, with the average endurance rate of patients who relapse runing from 3-6 months despite aggressive intervention [ 10 ] . Patients may develop the feeling that the medicines are useless or may give up because of the intolerable side effects and the unstoppable backsliding of disease. This will take to non-adherence to therapy and increase the hazard of mortality. However, in my sentiment, the multimodal treatments I discuss above are still considered the best solution for GBM as they outweigh the hazards by protracting the patients ‘ survival clip. Accumulative Word Count: 1432 Alternate Treatments Gene therapy Another promising attack of handling GBM is cistron therapy. Herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase/ganciclovir ( HSV-tk/GCV ) has evolved as a cytotoxic cistron therapy. In this instance, recombinant adenoviral vectors are used to give favorable consequences. Adenoviral HSV-tk ( AdHSV-tk ) is able to assail the residuary dividing tumour cells while go forthing the non-dividing nerve cells unharmed. What ‘s more, it can destruct the malignant neoplastic disease cells through bystander- consequence [ 19 ] . HSV-tk first converts GCV to GCV-monophosphate [ 16,17 ] . Then, cellular kinases farther convert this merchandise to GCV-triphosphate which is a hapless substrate for uninterrupted DNA elongation due to the lacking of 3 ‘ hydroxyl group that is needed to organize phosphodiester bond in chain-elongation-reaction. Ultimately, nonfunctional Deoxyribonucleic acid fragments are formed, triping programmed cell death in malignant neoplastic disease cells [ 18 ] . Nowadays, AdH SV-tk /GCV is going preferred comparisons to conventional radiation therapy and chemotherapy due to its fewer inauspicious effects. Figure 4 The rule of HSV-tk/GCV cistron therapy. hypertext transfer protocol: //www.gtmb.org/VOL4A/GTMBVOL4AHTML/23_Adachi_files/image001.gif Accumulative Word Count: 1575 Table 2 Surveies by Sandmair et Al. and Immonen et Al. demo a singular protraction of endurance in patients treated with AdHSV-tk [ 19 ] . Patients Vector Phase Gene Transfer Method Adverse Effectss Survival ( Months ) Response Brain Tumour Glioblastoma Multiforme Problem Health And Social Care Essay GBM normally affects people who older than 50 old ages old although the disease can happen in patients from all age group [ 2,25,28 ] . Patients suffer ictus, concern, ocular perturbation and sometimes personality alterations which can do great emotional hurt [ 25,30,31 ] . The average endurance of GBM patients is hapless, with about 12 to 14 months [ 7 ] . At this minute, the exact causes of GBM still remain vague to the scientists. Figure 1 GBM tumor is normally found in frontal and temporal lobe. Beginning: hypertext transfer protocol: //ebsco.smartimagebase.com/brain-tumor/view-item? ItemID=4027 Accumulative Word Count: 131 Possible Treatments Surgery Surgery is normally the initial measure to handle GBM by taking every bit much tumor as possible. It is non healing but aims to cut down the tumor ‘s size every bit much as possible so that other therapies right after the surgery can be more effectual. Furthermore, surgical resection Acts of the Apostless to alleviate hydrops by debulking tumor every bit good as being a alleviative intervention for neurologic symptoms such as ictus activity [ 7 ] . The surgery includes standard surgical process craniotomy which removes a subdivision of skull to expose the encephalon underneath in order to unclutter the tumor. Besides, patients may choose to undergo optical maser microsurgery or supersonic aspiration to hold their tumors removed. 2 1 3 4 Figure 2 Craniotomy hypertext transfer protocol: //ebsco.smartimagebase.com/surgical-craniotomy/view-item? ItemID=40345 Accumulative Word Count: 242 Radiation Therapy Normally, radiation therapy ( RT ) is administered instantly after surgery. It works chiefly by damaging the Deoxyribonucleic acid of tumor cells, killing any residuary tumor cells after surgical remotion of the tumour [ 3-6,32 ] . A research has shown that the average endurance clip has increased from 17 hebdomads ( treated with conventional attention ) to 37.5 hebdomads when the GBM patients were treated with RT entirely while combination of BNCU ( carmustine ) and RT produced a 40.5 hebdomad average endurance [ 11 ] . Table 1 Randomized surveies of post-operative radiation compared with no radiation therapy in malignant gliomaa [ 23 ] Study [ Ref. ] Study group Radiation dose Gy/ no. of fraction No. of patients randomized ( analyzed ) Median endurance ( hebdomads ) Overall endurance P value Shapiro et al. , 1976 [ 62 ] Connecticut RT + CT – 60 16 ( 16 ) 17 ( 17 ) 30 44.5 NR Not important Andersen, 1978 [ 1 ] Surgery entirely RT – 45/25 57 ( 57 ) 51 ( 51 ) 15b 23b †¹0.005 Survival at 6 months Walker et al. , 1978 [ 78 ] vitamin D Surgery entirely RT – 50-60/25-35 42 ( 31 ) 93 ( 68 ) 14c 36c 0.001 Walker et al. , 1980 [ 79 ] vitamin D Connecticut RT – 60/30-35 111 ( 111 ) 118 ( 118 ) 31 37 0.003 Kristiansen et al. , 1981 [ 36 ] vitamin D Surgery entirely RT + / – Connecticut – 45/25 38 ( 38 ) 80 ( 80 ) 23 47 NR Significant Sandberg-Wollheim et al. , 1991 [ 60 ] Connecticut RT + CT – 58/27 87 ( 87 ) 84 ( 84 ) 42 62 0.028 a CT, chemotherapy ; NR, non reported ; RT, radiation therapy. B Calculated from survival curve. 500 Multi-arm survey that included a radiation plus chemotherapy arm. For both surveies by Walker et al. , merely information from the radiation entirely arm are shown in Table 2. Kristiansen et Al. reported combined informations from the radiation entirely arm and the radiation plus chemotherapy arm. In each of these surveies, there was a important survival benefit favouring radiation plus chemotherapy compared with no radiation therapy but no important difference in endurance between radiation entirely and radiation plus chemotherapy ( informations non shown ) . degree Celsiuss Merely consequences for the evaluable patients were reported ( 31 patients in the surgery entirely arm and 68 patients in the RT arm ) . Accumulative Word Count: 329 RT is normally administered through external beam radiation but internal radiation called Brachytherapy is besides possible. Each manner differs in how the radiation beginnings are delivered to the tumour [ 4-6,32 ] . Using IMRT ( Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy ) , a machine such as additive gas pedal delivers precise high-energy radiation doses ( eg: X raies ) to the tumor accurately and kills the affected cells [ 6,33 ] . Most patients will have the intervention for five to seven hebdomads [ 6,32,34 ] . Typically, around 6000 to 6500 units of radiation are delivered over seven hebdomads [ 6 ] . In contrast, brachytherapy topographic point the radiation beginnings every bit near as possible to the targeted cells in shorter clip comparison to external radiation. It consists of radioactive implants in the signifier of catheters or seeds which has impermanent radioactive beginnings in the tumor [ 8 ] . Figure 3 Brachythrapy hypertext transfer protocol: //ebsco.smartimagebase.com/brachytherapy/view-item? ItemID=24923 Besides, stereotactic radiosurgery, a noninvasive method of presenting an intense and focused dosage of radiation to a little country can be used for GBM excessively. Treatment dose is individualized but the typical dosage is about 2500 units of radiation per intervention [ 6 ] . Other signifiers of radiation intervention such as installing of inflatable balloon incorporating liquid radiation or interpolation of monoclonal antibodies tagged with radioactive substances may be used [ 8 ] . Accumulative Word Count: 519 Chemotherapy Chemotherapy may be given after surgical resection and radiation. In this therapy, chemotherapeutic drugs play an of import function in impacting retroflexing cells by damaging the Deoxyribonucleic acid of these cells. The most normally used drugs are carmustine ( BNCU ) , lomustine ( CCNU ) , temozolomide ( Temodar ) and procarbazine. They are classified as alkylating agents which are DNA-damaging drugs. These drugs alkylate the Deoxyribonucleic acid in the tumor cells, doing the dual strands to be cross-linked to each other in an inappropriate manner. This thereby, blocks DNA reproduction and bit by bit leads to cell decease [ 4,5,8 ] . Soon, Gliadel Wafer – a biodegradable wafer soaked with BNCU is prevailing among the interventions. This is done by engrafting wafers in the pit after surgical remotion of the tumor. The wafers so easy let go of high concentrations of BCNU straight into the tumour country over a period of 2-3 hebdomads. Gliadel does non supply a remedy for GBM but is believed to be capable of protracting endurance. Apart from that, temozolomide is more frequently administered orally on monthly rhythm for 6-12 months after surgery and radiation as a care therapy [ 6,8,28,29 ] . Traditional chemotherapy drugs can be effectual, but most of them do non separate between healthy and tumour cells, thereby forestalling the disposal of high doses to kill the unnatural cells. What is more, their generalised toxicity can do terrible side effects. Targeted therapy drugs like Avastin ( bevacizumab ) are more precise than some chemotherapy drugs and tend to hold fewer side effects. It has been approved by FDA in 2009 as a new biologic drug to handle GBM. Avastin acts chiefly as an angiogenesis inhibitors by decelerating the growing of new blood vass environing the tumor. It selectively blocks VEGF to suppress the activation of VEGF receptors tyrosine kinases VEGFR1 and VEGFR2 [ 13-15 ] . There are some surveies to turn out that approximately 20-30 % patients with GBM do react to the drugs [ 27 ] . Accumulative Word Count: 823 A Graph 1 Kaplan-Meier endurance curves for patients treated with steroids and ( A ) resective surgery merely, ( B ) resective surgery and radiation therapy and ( C ) resective surgery, radiation therapy and chemotherapy. [ 12 ] Bacillus C Accumulative Word Count: 848 Social and Economic Deductions The trouble to digest with the side effects of the medicines such as sleepiness and hair loss may do GBM patients to experience down and hurt. They may be easy frustrated by concerns they suffer often or experience suffering and hopeless after the diagnosing [ 34 ] . This could take to serious societal impact and would worry the people around them. Furthermore, most of the patients find it hard to return to work due to decrease in productiveness. A study has shown that with 91 % patients were employed before diagnosing, merely 33 % of them continue working after interventions. While health professionals who were still working experience employment alterations such as taking leave of absence to be with their loved 1s for interventions or taking on extra paid work might experience stressed and have to fight difficult to get by with the tough life [ 9 ] . In order to run a normal life, patients require undergo a plentifulness of interventions including hospitalization after surgery which would do great fiscal load. It is estimated that cost of GBM interventions ranged from ˆ10 893 to ˆ125 275 [ 22 ] . Trouble of obtaining insurance makes the status even worse. Drugs that are necessary for GBM interventions are expensive and are normally administered over long period of clip. All this becomes a beginning of depression which affects non merely the patients but their households and friends [ 9 ] . The return of GBM after conventional therapy is inevitable. This so creates unstoppable medical crisis every bit good as fiscal hurt to the patients and their households. Accumulative Word Count: 1084 Benefits and Hazards I believe a combination of surgery, radiation therapy and chemotherapy is the most effectual intervention for GBM presently. In malice of its forecast has remained hapless for the last few decennaries, patients do acquire better after adhering to this standard therapy. Although GBM can non be cured, the patients had have their survival clip prolonged, acquiring a opportunity to pass their last few months with their loved 1s in a meaningful manner [ 34 ] . Nevertheless, the interventions do enforce distressing side effects to human wellness. Despite killing tumour cells, alkylating agents used are considered toxic, ensuing in suppression or lowering of blood counts. They have been associated with important sickness, hair loss, weariness and sterility [ 5 ] . High doses of BNCU may take to damage and marking of the lungs while procarbazine can do raging concern, purging and numbness. Hence, doses of drugs administered have to be carefully monitored by doctor to avoid taking to unwanted effects. Recently invented drugs temozolomide, has comparatively mild side effects but they are still inevitable [ 6 ] . Meanwhile, hazard of developing acute leukaemia old ages subsequently is increased when patients are exposed to alkylating agents [ 5 ] . Avastin, a freshly developed drug, provides a more effectual therapy for GBM. However, it potentially creates fatal toxicity, doing the late closed surgical lesion interruptions down. Some claim that the development of toxicity by avastin may shorten endurance in some patients when it is added to radiotherapy and temozolomide. Thus, researches on the effectivity and safety of use of avastin should be carried on continually until desirable consequences are obtained [ 20 ] . In add-on, the return of the tumor is ineluctable, with the average endurance rate of patients who relapse runing from 3-6 months despite aggressive intervention [ 10 ] . Patients may develop the feeling that the medicines are useless or may give up because of the intolerable side effects and the unstoppable backsliding of disease. This will take to non-adherence to therapy and increase the hazard of mortality. However, in my sentiment, the multimodal treatments I discuss above are still considered the best solution for GBM as they outweigh the hazards by protracting the patients ‘ survival clip. Accumulative Word Count: 1432 Alternate Treatments Gene therapy Another promising attack of handling GBM is cistron therapy. Herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase/ganciclovir ( HSV-tk/GCV ) has evolved as a cytotoxic cistron therapy. In this instance, recombinant adenoviral vectors are used to give favorable consequences. Adenoviral HSV-tk ( AdHSV-tk ) is able to assail the residuary dividing tumour cells while go forthing the non-dividing nerve cells unharmed. What ‘s more, it can destruct the malignant neoplastic disease cells through bystander- consequence [ 19 ] . HSV-tk first converts GCV to GCV-monophosphate [ 16,17 ] . Then, cellular kinases farther convert this merchandise to GCV-triphosphate which is a hapless substrate for uninterrupted DNA elongation due to the lacking of 3 ‘ hydroxyl group that is needed to organize phosphodiester bond in chain-elongation-reaction. Ultimately, nonfunctional Deoxyribonucleic acid fragments are formed, triping programmed cell death in malignant neoplastic disease cells [ 18 ] . Nowadays, AdH SV-tk /GCV is going preferred comparisons to conventional radiation therapy and chemotherapy due to its fewer inauspicious effects. Figure 4 The rule of HSV-tk/GCV cistron therapy. hypertext transfer protocol: //www.gtmb.org/VOL4A/GTMBVOL4AHTML/23_Adachi_files/image001.gif Accumulative Word Count: 1575 Table 2 Surveies by Sandmair et Al. and Immonen et Al. demo a singular protraction of endurance in patients treated with AdHSV-tk [ 19 ] . Patients Vector Phase Gene Transfer Method Adverse Effectss Survival ( Months ) Response

Public Health and the Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Public Health and the Law - Essay Example There are laws associated with motor vehicle safety at both the federal and state level. At the federal level, The National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act that was enacted in 1966 in the United States empower the federal government to set and administer safety standards for road traffic safety and motor vehicles (Evans, 2004). This law was set up to curb the increasing number of motor vehicle crashes and the associated injuries and fatalities on the road. At the State (Florida) level, the laws associated with motor vehicle safety are: Florida Lemon Laws; Seat Belt Laws; Double Traffic Fines; Florida DMV Privacy; Clearing up a Traffic Ticket; and School Zone Speed Limits (Evans, 2004). The Florida Department of Highway Safety and Motor Vehicles regulates all the motor vehicles and all the laws that apply to them. These types of laws are legislative because they were enacted by the legislature or other governing bodies. As legislations, these laws main purposes include: regulatio n, sanctioning, proscribing, declaring, authorization, or restricting particular acts or events (Keller & Associates, 2010). The federal and state laws described in this paper relate greatly with the public health services. It has emerged that the motor vehicle safety are related to specific public health concerns. These concerns include: high risk populations that include Alcohol-impaired drivers who account for about 39 percent of all traffic deaths, young drivers and passengers, and pedestrians; and occupant- protection systems which are aimed at promoting motor vehicle and public health safety. Since motor vehicle safety is a public health concern, its laws relate to the public health services (Evans, 2004). These laws play fundamental role in health promotion, wellness and prevention. They ensure stricter law enforcement; create awareness on the dangers of drinking and driving. Also, they facilitate

Obesity Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 4

Obesity - Research Paper Example Although alcohol and smoking are not very common in children, some children have these behaviors. Alcoholism and smoking have proven to be a cause of obesity. The environment in which the minor is brought up in can lead to obesity. Advertisements influence the kind of things that children are attracted to. In the food market, there is a lot of advertisement for fast food. This leads to children taking more junk food, and thus they become obese. Lifestyles have also changed. Parents offer their children little healthy food. In the current world, many parents will prefer buying drinks and snacks for their children rather than preparing healthy meals. There is little walking as people move in vehicles. Such characteristics of the modern lifestyles lead to children being obese. Disability is a factor that can lead to obesity, but it is commonly overlooked. Certain mental disabilities such as schizophrenia can cause eating disorders. Moreover, disabled people have little exercise due to the nature of their bodies. Therefore, there is an imbalance between the energy taken in and the energy released by the disabled people. This imbalance leads to obesity The amount of energy that a child takes in the form of food can lead to obesity. Parents give their children high energy foods in large quantities. The body does not require the excess energy, and all the excess energy is stored in the form of fats. The accruement of fats in the body leads to obesity. The amount of energy expenditure has a close relation to obesity. If a kid takes in a lot of energy and does not involve their body with physical exercise, the child is likely to obese. The current western lifestyle contributes a lot to causing obesity. Most children spend their leisure time playing computer games rather than real games. Little time for physical exercise leads to build up of calories, and thus the child becomes

CROSS CULTURAL MANAGEMENT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

CROSS CULTURAL MANAGEMENT - Essay Example In this paper macro level facts of France would be evaluated, the business culture in France would be analysed, the challenges that the manager might face would be identified and probable recommendation would be put forward, so that the assignment turns out to be successful for the company. Macro level facts about Paris, France France is considered as one of the most contemporary countries of the world. It has a very influential role in United Nation Organisation. It is the largest country in Western Europe and has the 9th largest economy in Europe (CIA, 2013). Paris is the capital of France, which is situated in the north of France. It has a typical oceanic climate, which is mainly because of the influence of North Atlantic current. As far as the overall climate of the city is concern, it is moderately wet and mild throughout the year. In summer, the days are usually pleasant and warm, while winters are freezing. It rains throughout the year in Paris. The city is managed by the muni cipality and the since 1834, apart from the government and other governing bodies. The population of Paris in 2010 was around 2.25 million, which obviously has increase by now (CIA, 2013). The wages are quite high in Paris and media income in the city in 2011 was approximately â‚ ¬25,000, which signifies that the standard of living of Paris is comparatively high. The higher income people are mostly found in the western part of the city. Paris is considered to be one of the economic centres and the wealthiest area of the country. The GDP of the country is $2.609 trillion in 2012. Majority of national income of the country is generated by the service sector (79.2 percent). The currency of France is Euro and CFP Franc (CIA, 2013). Majority of people are French, but other ethnic groups such as North African, Latin, Indochinese, East Indian, Chinese, Amerindian, etc are also seen in France. French is the official language and spoken throughout the country. The population of the countr y on 2013, 65,951,611, in which majority of the population, that is around 38.9 percent are between of age of 25 to 54 years (CIA, 2013). Value Description – Hofstede Model In this segment, the French culture would be discussed with the help of Hofstede model, which will provide a view of the drivers of French culture. In addition to this, the Chinese culture would be simultaneously examined, so that a comparative analysis can be portrayed. The five elements of Hofstede model are: a) power distance, b) individualism, c) uncertainty avoidance, d) long term orientation and e) masculinity/ femininity. Figure 1: Hofstede Model: Comparison between France and China Source: (The Hofstede Centre, n. d.). Power distance: Both France and China has a high power distance score, which signifies that in both societies inequality is accepted. However, in China the inequality in the society is higher as the score is 80 in comparison to France, whose score is 68. So the superiors have the pri viledge, which in many cases are inaccessible for the inferior strata of the society. Individualism: The individualism score of France is 71, which means French prefer private and individual opinion and are more interested in taking care of themselves before their family. Individual recognition at

Jesus & Mohammed Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Jesus & Mohammed Paper - Essay Example In a way, both have presented themselves as messengers of God who came to bring message of hope to the world. However, they differ in the way they presented their messages. Jesus came with full authority as the son of God, to win the world on his side as a representative of God. Mohammed came to deliver the news of God on earth and was not representing God. The differences in teachings have resulted to differences between Christianity and Muslims. Life History Jesus Christ and Prophet Mohammed Jesus was born six hundred years before Prophet Mohammed. He was born of a Virgin Mary and had no biological father. He had no family unlike Mohammed who had married several wives (Hafez.et.al, 2000). During the birth of Jesus, the shepherds were visited by an angel. The angel directed them to the place of birth in Bethlehem, where they took presents to him. It was an extraordinary event which brought people from different parts of the world to witness the birth of the spiritual king. His birth was of significance to the human race because he had come to bring salvation to mankind. On the other hand, the birth of Prophet Mohammed brought favor upon his nurse Halima. He was born during a period of famine but his nurse received abundant favor and her harvest was bumpers. Even her animals produced a lot of milk. The visitors who came to see prophet Mohamed received healing (Hafez.et.al, 2000). ... For example, Jesus is said to have healed many sick people, converted water into wine, fed five thousand people with five loaves of bread and two pieces of fish among other wonders. Jesus taught people how to humble themselves and worship God. He recruited his followers and trained them to spread the gospel to the entire world by preaching the salvation of God. Similarly, Prophet Mohammed introduced Islamic religion on earth. He established his followers and taught them the way of Allah. He taught people how to live righteous life according to the doctrines of Allah. Jesus taught his followers to practice kindness, mercy and love as a way of defeating their enemies. He taught his followers to uphold sanctity of life and respect for God through loving their enemies (Hafez.et.al, 2000). He emphasized on the need of forgiveness of sins and tolerance for one another. According to his teachings, Jesus told his followers never to take revenge against those who wrong them. Mohammed taught h is followers to safeguard their religion through whatever means they could. Jesus was son of God, while Mohammed was a representative of Allah. Jesus death was through crucifixion by the Jews who accused him of profaning the name of God by proclaiming to be the son of God (Hafez.et.al, 2000). Though he died and was buried, he resurrected and ascended to heaven and is said to be seated with his father at His throne. As for Mohammed, he died in the presence of Aisha his wife. Impact of Jesus and Mohammed Death on their Religion The death of Mohammed caused great bewilderment among his followers. This is because; there was no prior arrangement on who would take over the leadership after his death. Two factions the Shia and the Sunni

Organizational Development in HRD Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Organizational Development in HRD - Essay Example The last manager to be terminated, Leon McLaughlin had 15 years of Marine experience, but he could not deliver results. Although, he did his best, he was handicapped by the lack of funds, which were originally promised, leading to underperformance. The main task before the new manger, Jack Keltner, is how to successfully run Fourwinds Marina through new strategies, even while generating funds. Strengths Lake Monroe is a happening place in Indiana with all safeguards and opportunities FourWinds has been providing optimum services for the last few years There are other value added services, which would complement it Jack Keltner’s previous good performance in Marina’s accounting department Weakness Managers are being changed in a short-term manner, without long-term perspective Thus, there is no optimum continuity of the various organizational processes, initiated by each one of them Charges for anchoring boats are also increasing, leading to higher operational costs Oppo rtunities Indianapolis metropolitan area’s population is over one million, and they have some $3.5 billion dollars to spend annually.

Jazz History George Gershwin Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Jazz History George Gershwin - Essay Example He started his musical training at the age of 13, and was so enthusiastic about it that he dropped out of the school at the age of 15 to work at Tin Pan Alley, a music publishing firm owned by Jerome H. Remick. "Since I found you" and "Raggin' the Traumeri" were the first two songs that George tried to publish but wasn't so lucky. Later on, he was able to get his song "When you want 'em you can't get 'em when you've got 'em you can't get 'em" published but wasn't able to make much impression on the public. First real fame came to him when Al Jolson popularized his song "Swanee" in 1919. Another notable success for him was in 1920, when he was hired to write music for "Scandals". Eventually, George and his elder brother Ira, together, were one of the dominant songwriters of the Broadway. His works such as, Oh, Kay! (1926), Funny Face (1927), Strike Up the Band (1927 & 30), Girl Crazy (1930) and Of Thee I Sing (1931) are one of the few that are worth mentioning. But his most outstanding work was "Rhapsody in Blue" for Paul Whitman Orchestra which opened a new era in the music by bringing Jazz into mainstream music and established it as a credible music genre. Later on he composed "Concerto in F" for New York Symphony Society, which is also considered one of his wonderful works amongst others such as "An American in Paris" and "Second Rhapsody". One of the interesting works he did was folk opera by the name of "Peggy and Bess" along with co-writers, Ira Greshwin, DuBose and Dorothy Heyward, which made its way to Broadway on 10th October, 1935. Disaster struck in July, 1937. George was admitted to Cedars of Lebanon Hospital where he was diagnosed with a brain tumor and was operated. He could not survive and was pronounced dead on 11th July, 1937. His last song "Love is here to stay", is here to stay in the hearts of every one who knew him. In conclusion, Gershwin has always been inspired with the classical European music and he elegantly combined it with something that originated in the gatherings of the African-American communities and managed to bring it into opera houses and Broadway while at the same time inspiring many others. Few of them such as Frank Sinatra, Nina Simone, Bing Crosby and Sting have recorded many of his songs. Many musicians like Ella Fitzgerald, Louis Armstrong, Miles Davis and many more have admired his work by depicting it in their work. In an article by John Rockwell in New York Times, 1987, praises Gershwin by citing Paul Simon's example as how this folk-rock artist carries forward the legacy of the great legend in his work "Graceland". Furthermore, in the same article he says, "If Gershwin didn't push the boundaries of classical music forward in his concert pieces(sic), he at least aspired to transcend the song forms and the limited harmonic language he started with. And that is something that today's ambitious pop art-song composers like Mr. Simon, David Byrne, Stevie Wonder and even Bruce Springsteen could profitably learn from him." In 2007, Library of Congress created Greshwin Prize in the memory of Gershwin brothers, for the artists with lifetime contribution to popular music. So far Paul McCartney (2009), Stevie Wonder (2008) and Paul Simon (2007) have been the three recipients. Works Cited "George Gershwin." The Official Website of George and Ira Gershwin. 2007. Web. 23 Nov, 2010.

Ethics Case Facts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Ethics Case Facts - Essay Example According to these theories, ethical issues in Frank and Molly’s case are very clear. First, Frank is witnessed violating these ethics as a lawyer for Chemco Company. Frank violates both the absolute and conditional duty theories by negotiating and getting a settlement that led to purchase of plaintiffs and tearing down of homes, leaving many people homeless and with lands. Frank does not promote the good of others through his actions (Hare, p. 38). Secondly, as the president of Chemco Company, he violates the conditional duty theory by not keeping his promise of continuing to provide jobs to his employees. Instead, he sells the Company to foreign investors who move the business to India, making the locals lose their jobs and a means of income. As a governor, he does nothing to advance the programs he proposed and used as a platform to get him the governor seat. He does nothing to improve the welfare of Kentucky’s businesses.The second based theory to ethics is rights t heory. Generally, a ‘right’ is a justified claim against another’s behavior. John Locke, a British philosopher, argues that the laws of nature dictate that we should not harm anyone’s life, liberty, health or possessions. Other rights include rights of speech, rights of property, movement and religious expression (Hare, p. 39). Moral rights are traditionally associated with four features. These features include natural insofar meaning are not created or invented by governments; gender or handicap and inalienable.... Frank does not promote the good of others through his actions (Hare, p. 38). Secondly, as the president of Chemco Company, he violates the conditional duty theory by not keeping his promise of continuing to provide jobs to his employees. Instead, he sells the Company to foreign investors who move the business to India, making the locals lose their jobs and a means of income. As a governor, he does nothing to advance the programs he proposed and used as a platform to get him the governor seat. He does nothing to improve the welfare of Kentucky’s businesses. The second based theory to ethics is rights theory. Generally, a ‘right’ is a justified claim against another’s behavior. John Locke, a British philosopher, argues that the laws of nature dictate that we should not harm anyone’s life, liberty, health or possessions. Other rights include rights of speech, rights of property, movement and religious expression (Hare, p. 39). Moral rights are tradition ally associated with four features. These features include natural insofar meaning are not created or invented by governments; universal insofar meaning they do not change from country to country; equal meaning that rights are the similar for all people, irrespective of race, gender or handicap and inalienable which means that one cannot hand over their rights to another individual. We also witness the neighboring lands and homes being polluted and eventually, the families lose their homes and lands to Chemco Company as the land is converted to a recreational park and becomes Chemco’s property. Kant’s theory, the third duty based theory, stresses on a single principle of duty. The theory is also known as categorical

Parent Child Relationship Essay Example for Free

Parent Child Relationship Essay Abstract This paper is about showing your children that you love them by promoting boundaries. It will explain what kids really want their parents know and understand. This paper also gets down to the basics of how to be a beacon of hope in this dark world. Show how to help our children maneuver through troubling situations by giving them positive values to fall back on. Love is the common thread which binds us together and without love, boundaries and discipline would not succeed the way it is meant to. This paper looks at different ways to be active at home, how to have a joy-filled home, and how to show the ones who mean the most to you how you feel. It also shows how emotions can affect how we parent. It takes us on a journey through our childhood, so many of our parenting tactics come from how we were parented whether it was good or bad it is what we based our parenting on. How Parents can Better Love Understand Their Kids In this paper we will be discussing different techniques and methods practiced to make home the safe haven it is supposed to be. Some tips are given on how to bring fun and understanding into the home. Family White (1998) states, â€Å"if your family are the most important people in your life†¦show them, make your family your priority—strip away the non important things that take away time from them (p. 5). Kids just want to be loved and cherished. They need to feel like they belong somewhere and are special. Parents need to slow down and spend time with their children. We need to be good role models for our own kids. We need to have fun households to show the kids there is more to their music and TV, they can have a good time with the family (p. 37-41). Talk about goal setting as a family, â€Å"everyone has an opinion so everyone is included in pitching ideas of they would like to see the family accomplish, positive comments only. Then you need to clarify and organize your agreed-upon goals, and write down ways to accomplish each goal. You should designate a specific time to reflect and reevaluate your efforts as a family† (White, 1998, p. 41-42). White (1998) teaches a listening technique which was taught to him. â€Å"You begin by telling the person you are going to ask three questions and you will repeat them several times, but they need to give a different response each time. The goal is to get them to discover the solution and work toward applying it (p. 60-61). We need to be mindful of how we perceive things each person has his or her own view, and it may not match your personal view but we need to realize there is more than one way to do a task. Also, White (1998) speaks to us about time and how we cherish the moments with our loved ones, making sure our kids are confident secure in who they are will help them be able to say no to certain things. We need to build up the kids by focusing on the positive and by letting them know they are loved (pp. 85-93). Not only is it our responsibility to build up our children, but we need to help them dreamhave vision, and help them get to their dreamsdon’t be a dream crusher. We may not believe what they do but we need to be supportive. How to be Positive â€Å"Your thinking directly affects your performance get rid of negative thinking. â€Å"You are what you are, and where you are because of what has gone into your mind† (Ziglar, 1989, pp. 18-20). Ziglar says, â€Å"When you change the input you change the output. We need to stop being so negative –if a task is too hard we say we can’t do it, we need to encourage our kids and ourselves to push through the tough times (p. 24). â€Å"A successful life starts with having a loving and stable relationship with our family. Your attitude affects your outlook on life; qualities to strive for to have success in life are: dependability, friendliness, honesty and a sense of humor† (Ziglar, 1998, pp.41-42). Ziglar also said, â€Å"A solid foundation for children involves a solid moral base† meaningyou need to practice what you preach. â€Å"You need to look for and expect good from your children, stop looking at the bad and negative things and look for the good and positive in them and they will bloom† (Ziglar, 1998, p. 51). Be specific when you find something good in your child, tell them what it is exactly and continue to lift them up. Being Available as an Emotion Coach According to Gottman (1997), We need to help our kids deal with their emotions by being their emotion coaches and we do that with five steps 1) by being aware of their emotion, 2) recognize the emotion as a time for intimacy and teaching, 3) listen to them and validate their feelings, 4) help label the emotion with words and 5) set limits while finding ways to solve the problem (p.24). In step one, the focus is on recognizing when you are feeling an emotion, you can identify the feelings, and you are able to be sensitive to emotions in others (p. 76). Step two, when parents can use a negative experience to bring forth bonding with their children it builds intimacy and it teaches them how to deal with their feelings (p.93). During step three, two things take place, listening empathetically and validating the child’s feelings. Gottman suggests that this may be the most important step in emotion coaching! Not only are you listening with your ears, but you are using your eyes to look for physical confirmation of the child’s emotions. Parents also use their imagination to see things from the child’s perspective. They repeat back what they hear to help the child put words to his or her emotions. Lastly, they use their most precious gift of heart to feel what their child is feeling (p. 94). Step four is putting words to their emotions. Studies have shown that labeling emotions has a soothing effect on the nervous system, aiding the child to bounce back quicker from upsetting incidents (pp. 99-100). The final step is setting limits and problem solving. This step entails empathizing with the child’s feelings as well as discussing what is right and wrong behavior, and then coming up with alternative ways to handle their emotions (p. 101). Generally speaking, according to Gottman (1997), Children who have parents that practice â€Å"emotion coaching† have better physical health and score higher in academics. They seem to get along better with others and have fewer behavioral problems. Also noted, these children are less prone to act violently and seem to experience fewer negative feelings and more positive ones, and are considered to be healthier on an emotional level (p. 25). â€Å"There are results that show when parents use emotion coaching with their kids; there are buffering effects on children whose families are having difficulty and/or divorce. Another find from research shows that fathers who incorporate emotion coaching in parenting have an extremely positive impact on their children’s emotional development† (Gottman, 1997, p. 26). There are four types of parenting styles; depending on your style as a parent the effects can be detrimental to the child’s well-being. The styles are being dismissive, disapproving, laissez-faire, and the emotion coach. In the dismissive style, the child’s feelings are thought of as not important or trivial. The effect on the child is that he or she learns that their feelings are wrong or not valid. They feel that something is wrong with them as a person because of how they feel (p. 50). The disapproving style, judges and criticizes the child’s emotional expression as well as view emotions as weakness. The effect on the child is that he or she learns that their feelings are wrong or not valid. They feel that something is wrong with them as a person because of how they feel (p. 51). The laissez-faire style, does not teach the child about emotions, and offers little guidance on behavior. The effect on the child is he or she does not learn how to regulate their emotions and they have trouble making friends and getting along with others (pp. 51-52). The emotion coach style, does not feel that they have to fix every problem for the child and they respect the child’s emotions. The effect on the child is he or she can trust their feelings, solve problems, and get along well with others (p. 52). Parents need to take their time with their children, get to know them and understand their point of view. By learning to be empathetic listeners, parents can help their children learn to problem solve for themselves, enable their child to soothe themselves and become more well-rounded individuals. Showing empathy is like showing your child your heart. If you can let them know that you understand how they feel, they won’t feel down and they will feel confident that their parents care about them at the core of their emotions. How Love Heals In understanding the dynamic of parent and child Hendrix Hunt (1997) use a metaphor describing the relationship as â€Å"a tapestry of life, meaning they are woven together by the threads and stitches of their interactions with one another† (p. 7). They use this to describe the delicate bond between the parent and child. If not careful you can tear and damage that bond. â€Å"These tears happen when you are not paying attention to the moment, or when you are experiencing emotional pain yourself† (Hendrix Hunt, 1997, p. 8). The focus of the message given by Hendrix Hunt (1997) is on being conscious in your parenting. This means â€Å"you are to meet the needs of your child by providing safety, support and structure as your child moves through each stage of development† (p. 38). Hendrix Hunt (1997) mentioned â€Å"most parents are unconscious, but they are still good, kind, caring and committed people. They have been wounded and just have not healed into a greater self-awareness and self-acceptance† (p.45). According to Hendrix Hunt (1997) there are five characteristics to unconscious parenting, â€Å"it cuts, it cuts the connection between parent and child. It is an inheritance, parents are parenting from their fears and wounds. It is unaware, these parents don’t realize what they do to their kids, and they felt cheated so the cycle continues. It causes exaggerated reactions, parents over or under react to what their child says or does. Lastly, it is ignorance, the parent doesn’t realize he or she is overreacting to the child’s normal behavior† (pp. 48-51). When a parent is ready to become a more conscious parent they need to learn how to listen and talk to their children. Hendrix Hunt (1997) calls this â€Å"intentional dialogue; this includes mirroring, validating, and empathizing† (p. 106). According to Hendrix Hunt, mirroring is when you have listened and repeat back what you believe you heard back to the person. Validating is when you let the speaker know that what they are saying makes sense. Empathizing is shown by recognizing the feelings of others as they explain their point of view (1997, p. 107-108). There needs to be a commitment on the part of the parent to be open to conscious parenting. Conscious parenting offers safety, support, and structure. The parent needs to create an environment that 1) is physically safe, 2) is emotionally supportive to the child’s growth, and 3) is structured to limits and boundaries (Hendrix Hunt, 1997, pp.141-142). According to Hendrix Hunt (1997), physical safety is the primary requirement of every living thing. The most important way to support a child is by validating how he or she feels. A conscious parent provides clear boundaries and sets limits to reinforce the child’s sense of safety and support (pp. 142-143, 153). No One Gets Me Dr Sachs is corresponding with one of his patients via letters being mailed to one another in, When no One Understands. This book was his response to what his patient wrote to him. This young lady was troubled and had tried a suicide attempt which is how they met. During their sessions she remained quiet she did not like to communicate by talking and because Dr. Sachs knew she was creative and a good writer so he decided to offer an alternative to the typical session. This brought her out of her shell a little to where she would talk to him in some sessions but the bulk of the treatment came through their letters. She did grow to trust him more and opened up to him regarding some things she felt her parents just were not â€Å"getting†. Encouragement and Self Discovery In, Taste Berries for Teens book series, is chock full of very touching letters from different teens going through different emotional trials. Youngs Youngs do a great job at reaching out to the youth and giving them an outlet to share their feelings. â€Å"The purpose of this series is focused on â€Å"liking† yourself. A chance for getting to know and understand yourself on a deeper level. It tells of change and how one changes from year to year† (Youngs Youngs, 2000, p.3). Boundaries Cloud Townsend (1998) brings honest thought to mind when they discuss what kind of future is being created for your child if they are wild and reckless? We are preparing our children for the future (p. 14). There are three roles to being a parent, 1) guardian, 2) manager and 3) source. The guardian is legally responsible for the child and is his or her protector. The manager makes sure things get done and goals are reached, this role is a disciplinarian one. The source, the parent is the source of all good things (Cloud Townsend, 1998, pp. 19-21). According to Clod Townsend (1998) parents need to teach reality principle, which introduces true reality consequences such as not going to a movie because the room was not cleaned; it does not include negative relational consequences such as nagging or fussing. The child needs to â€Å"feel† the consequences not the parent (pp. 58-61). Setting Limitations Clinton Sibcy talk about overprotecting, overindulging and over controlling your kids and how these can harm the child. Parents need to exercise balance we are to protect our children but when we over protect we damage their spirit and deter them from becoming the strong, independent adult they should be. Over controlling parents mean well, they want their child to succeed, but they push them to perfectionism and these children are afraid to fail. The over indulging parent may suffer from feelings of guilt but children need structure and in this case the child can become insecure, irritable and bored (p. 9-13). There is a healthy balance and it is the parent’s job to find it. Honestly it begins with love and respect, some have to learn that but it is give and take. If you don’t show the children these qualities, they cannot give it back to you. Conclusion I would just like to conclude by saying that I enjoyed this research and this topic were fun to delve into and I hope to use some of these techniques in my own home to help improve my relationship with my family communication is so important but the most important thing that I emphasize is that it all must be done in love and with love to work. You can bark orders and commands all day long but you and your children will suffer from the lack of love and respect. References Clinton, T., Sibcy, G. (2006). Loving your child too much: Staying close to your kids without overprotecting, overindulging, or overcontrolling. Nashville, TN: Integrity Publishers. Cloud, H. Townsend, J. (2001). Boundaries with kids. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Gottman, J; (1997). The heart of parenting. New York, NY; Simon Schuster Hendrix, H; Hunt, H; (1997). Giving the love that heals a guide for parents. New York, NY; Pocket Books. Sachs, B; (2007). When no one understands. Boston, MA; Trumpeter Books. Youngs, B; Youngs, J; (1995). Taste berries for teens #3. Deerfield Beach, FL; Health Communications, Inc. White, J; (1998). What kids wish parents knew about parenting. West Monroe, LA; Howard Publishing Co, Inc. Ziglar, Z; (1989). Raising positive kids in a negative world. New York, NY, Ballentine Books.

Conservation of biological Diversity Essay Example for Free

Conservation of biological Diversity Essay Conservation of biological diversity is the most important aspect on the globe since all demands of human existence are entirely dependent on it. Domestic, industrial, and leisure considerations of human existence are derived from nature. Recently, the focus on biodiversity conservation has increased owing to the greater levels of understanding on the local and international significance of conservation. Since the first United Nations Convention on Human Environment held in Stockholm 1972, the disparities between conservation and development have come to the lime light with great emphasis (Clifford Clifford, 61-62). However, conservation analysts have continued to differ over the overall effects of the international conservation rules in enhancing harmony that inculcates human being as a subcomponent of the ecosystem in which they exist. Whereas misunderstanding and misinterpretation of the term conservation has recurred for a long time, UNEP points out that it is the overall use of biological resources while enhancing their resilience to enhance inter and intra generational equity. The term conservation has been used interchangeably with preservation a notion which is totally wrong. The later denotes taking care of the biological diversity without exploiting them or their proceeds. Biological diversity (biodiversity) is a term used to indicate variations of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome or the whole earth. It also encompasses the variability of living organisms from all sources, that include inter alia, terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic and ecological complexes that they are part. This includes diversity within species, between them, and ecosystems (James Kim et al, 193-195). 2. Overview of the paper This paper explores conservation of biological diversity with an aim of establishing the existing conservation strategies present on a global scale and assessing their effectiveness. Tracing the origin of the concerns for conservation, the paper uses statistics to indicate the current situation of biodiversity conservation and threats globally. To add to that, it explores the policy and legislative framework to address the threats on a global scale and their domestication by various states. Using examples, the paper seeks to establish the future of conservation and the factors that will determine effective conservation of the biological diversity. 3. Background and statistics Conservation of biological diversity has existed since historic times where most of the communities lived and co-existed with the natural flora and fauna without posing any threat to it. Notably, after the settling of the Red Indians in Northwest Coast and Southwestern regions of North America, they totally relied on the wild without causing any threat to them. However, the modern conservation ideals are mostly linked to the first United Nations Convention on Human Environment which was held in Stockholm Sweden in 1972 (Clifford Clifford, 102-105). It was this meeting that resolved to form the United Nations Environment Program to act as the main body responsible for environment and conservation globally. Conservation biologists have indicated that the world is threatened with extinction than any other period in history. Global extinction is estimated to be 10, 000 higher than the natural background extinction rate. 32% of all the global surviving amphibians are threatened with extinction. Over the last 50 years, it is estimated that two-thirds of all the mammal genera weighing about 44 Kg (97lb) have become extinct. To add to that, 12% of all birds in the globe and 23% of all mammals are listed in the IUCN Red Data Book. By the year 2000, about 27% of the entire world coral reefs had collapsed and by 2050 extinction rates will range from 15% to 37% for all the planet species (IUCN Commission on Ecosystem Management, 60-65). Of greater concern is that about 70% of all the studied plants have been designated as threatened or endangered. 4. Threats to conservation of biological diversity a) Industrial and Agricultural activities Since industrial revolution, advancement in technology has heightened the rate of natural resources exploitation from the natural system. This increase in exploitation has directly or indirectly affected the flora, fauna, or their habitat with a great extent. Currently, massive whaling industries in the pacific have resulted to the great decline of the species. After the discovery of â€Å"new lands† (currently North America), the British industrialists embarked on large scale harvesting of the forest products that threatened vast species of flora and fauna in the region. Of greater concern, is the wildlife products sale and use that have endangered biodiversity like the Tragelaphus speke, Myotis leibii, Lamptetra bifrenatus, Ambystoma opacum, Crotalus horridus, and Sterna dougalii among others. In addition species like Gavia, immer, Martes americana, Notropis bifrenatus, and Clemmys guttata have become threatened with time (Mark, 280-300). Agricultural activities on the other hand have encroached into most of the biodiversitys habitats due to the demand from the rising population to be fed. At this point, agriculturalists have shallowly argued that it is more important to feed the people as opposed to conservation. To add to that, modern agricultural activities have resulted to use of inorganic and toxic agro-chemicals that poison the flora and fauna. Pesticides and fertilizer remnants are easily swept to the aquatic ecosystems during the rainy seasons killing or inducing mutations in the biological systems. b) Pollution As indicated earlier, industrial productions most negative effect is probably pollution emitted to the natural systems. Notably, production of goods is operated on a totally capitalistic note where reduction of production costs is strongly emphasized. As a result, pollution control and waste management has taken a back hand in most of these industries and urban establishment. Therefore, they release most of their wastes directly into the ecosystems where massive poisoning of flora and fauna takes place. During the United Nations Convention on Environment and Development in 1992 at Rio-de-Janeiro, agenda 21 indicated the great need to control pollution by the member states. Of greater concerns was the direct emission of heavy metals that undergo bio-magnification and bio-accumulation to the environment. These toxicants have long tern effects and shift upwards to affect all level of food chain in an ecosystem. Glenn et al (540-545), emphasis the earlier connotation of the Silent springs on the trans-boundary nature of pollutants which results to extended impacts on a global scale. Rachael Carson found out that even after chemicals are used, they are transported via environmental dynamics to far places like the Polar Regions where she noted extensive death of penguins. c) Monopolistic application of conservation policies Notably, conservation of biodiversity has become a hard nut to crack due to lack of harmony in the overall design and application of conservation consideration between states. Though diplomacy has recently taken an upper hand in ensuring amicable resolution of conflicts, conservation of biodiversity still lags behind. This has been prompted by the varying priorities by different administrations and countries authorities’ consideration. This has especially been noted with the migratory birds in the world where they shift to various regions during different seasons. According to David (254-257) about 50% of the birds found in the Northern Hemisphere migrate towards the tropics during winter and back in springs. David continues to say that the Bar Tailed Godwit and the Sooty Shearwater have especially been under great threat from massive wetlands destruction. To add to that, Mara and Serengeti ecosystems (seventh wonder of the world) is under threat due to extensive destruction of forests that supply water to the fragile downstream ecosystem. 5. International laws, regulations and policy framework a) UNEP (United Nations Environmental Program) As indicated earlier, the United Nations Conference on Human Environment which resulted to formation of UNEP was the main beginning for conservation concerns. The body was established with the overall mandate of coordinating all environmentally related issues globally. It was especially charged with the responsibility of ensuring that conservation of biodiversity was strictly enhanced. As a result, it organized the Convention on Biological Diversity that was held in Rio-De-Janeiro in the year 1992. The latter is considered to be the most comprehensive meeting in the history of conservation as it formed the main guidelines for conservation of biodiversity in the member states which it broke into three main considerations: (1) Conservation of biological diversity by the member states with short and long term considerations (2) Sustainable use of its components (3) Fair and equitable sharing of the proceed resulting from consideration (2) It formed the main platform for the later conservation initiatives like Cartagena protocol and played a key role in establishment of Kyoto protocol. Holistically, the Convention on Biological Diversity is envisaged on precautionary principle which calls for greater concern and study of all impacts that would result to the biodiversity destruction upon establishment of various projects (European Union, 9-12). b) Ramser Convention (The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance) This convention was established to assist in conservation of wetlands that have international importance. Notably, most of the wetlands have usefulness that goes beyond their territorial jurisdictions either culturally, economically, scientifically, and have extensive recreational values. The convention came to force in 1975 and by the year 2000, about 1, 630, 000 square kilometers in 1, 021 sites had been designated. Canada has the greatest area of designated wetlands of 130, 000 square kilometers. Notably, this convention has particularly assisted the migratory bird species that occasionally uses these wetlands (William James et al, 495-500).

Issues In Sport And Touch Football Sociology Essay

Issues In Sport And Touch Football Sociology Essay This research explores the way gender is perceived and constructed within the examined roles of touch football referees, with the aim of investigating gender equity relative to the participation and experience of female referees in touch football. The key questions of this thesis emanate from concerns around the equitable distribution of officiating sports roles. This concern also extends to individuals who may want to shift from participating in sporting activities just as participants to officiating in sports. Officiating and volunteering roles in sport have typically been highly gendered, with females over-represented in lower status roles. Females have tended to dominate the non-paid volunteer positions in sporting operations, while males are typically over-represented in leadership roles. This inequity has been strongly rallied against by researchers who have adopted a gender focus in their research. This thesis contends that the sporting practice of touch football, whilst considered by many to be a sporting practice that is reflective of current societal norms and values, could benefit from a gendered analysis. In order to operationalise the research, a case study approach was adopted which examined the role of female referees officiating in a locally-based senior mixed touch football competition. The role of referees in the local touch football competition presents a number of unique factors which are highly beneficial to this study. Refereeing in the competition is open to both males and females in the mixed competition. The selection of referees is through an administrative process that involves a number of relevant processes that draw on broader gender equity issues such as credentialism and professionalism, as well as simple gender bias. Theoretically the research approach has drawn on elements of the work of Norbert Elias, in particular the concept of figurationalism, and also the post-structuralist approach from Actor Network Theory [ANT]. The methodologies and analysis explore the site of touch football in a small rural setting through engaging with the touch football participants experiences of playing and officiating in the role of referee in the competition. The research is significant for several reasons and at different levels. First, Australian Government policies such as the Active Women: National Policy for Women and Girls in Sport, Recreation and Physical Activity, 1999-2002 (1999a), and How to include Women and Girls in Sport, Recreation and Physical Activity: Strategies and Good Practice (1999b) require Australian sport institutions to foster sporting cultures that allow and value the full involvement of females in every aspect of sport. Second, societal practices that support inequities are persistent and will re-emerge as dominant forms if they are not subjected to critical examination and leadership given for just change. Third, at a game administration level, gender equity is identified as a key strategy to ensure the long-term growth of the sporting practice by ensuring equal opportunities in all aspects of the game. Fourth, at a game and individual level, the inclusion of an appropriate gender mix will help to neutralise unwanted masculine traits of overt aggression and sexist behaviour from the sport. Female participation in the referee role that is reflective of the female player cohort will arguably help to shape the sporting practice to reflect the shared values of a mixed competition, focusing on the positive social and physical benefits of the game. Last, the research area is of keen interest to the researcher and is an area of inquiry where there is prior knowledge of the location of roles within the sporting practice, and a capacity and ease for the researcher to engage with those involved at the local level. 1.2 Research hypothesis This thesis seeks to explore whether a gendered approach to examining a local touch football competition will assist in improving the outcomes of both males and females in relation to officiating within the sport. Therefore, this thesis is concerned with the equitable representation of female referees in the local mixed touch football competition. Individuals understandings of gender differences within the role of referee and applicable strategies to address gender equity will frame the thesis. This thesis is best read as a preliminary analysis of gender equity in refereeing within the sporting practice of touch football. The research is approved by the CQUniversity Human Research Ethics Committee [H12/02-019], Queensland Touch Association and Central Queensland Touch Association. 1.3 Research background 1.3.1 Key concerns in sport Sport has historically attracted considerable attention from social theorists and commentators, with approaches ranging from macro and meta-analysis of sporting behaviours and outcomes to micro approaches that examine the everyday and mundane elements of sport. This thesis adopts a gendered, post-structuralist approach to exploring the key issue of gender equity in the roles of officiating in sport. In the next section, a background will be given of the key concerns that helped shape the research process and an introduction to touch football will assist the uninitiated to the sporting practice. An elementary understanding of the sporting practice, together with a familiarity with the general history and values embedded in the sporting practice will assist in a reading of the research. 1.3.1.1 Gender in sport The research adopts a gendered approach as gender is seen as an important social construct. The construct of gender can be used to uncover and understand better sporting practices, offering an opportunity to improve the individual and collective outcomes that are associated with particular sports. The sociology of gender has developed in line with successive waves of the feminists movement and creates an intellectual endeavour in its own right (Weedon 1997). This thesis uses a working definition of gender as a system of social practices as a means to interrogate the social arrangements of touch football (Ridgeway and Smith-Lovin 1999, p. 192). The gendered social practices establish and maintain gender distinctions, differences and inequalities. Relationships between actors are organised to some extent on those distinctions, differences and inequalities. Gender represents those social, cultural and psychological traits linked to males and females through particular social contexts an d translations. Debate remains on all elements that comprise feminist theory, but basically, the consensus is that a theory is feminist if it can be used to contest a status quo that is damaging to females (Chafetz 1988; Hall 1996). Feminists work through various avenues to increase females empowerment. Feminists accept the goal of ending sexism by empowering females (Weedon 1997), though there is a great deal of disparity about how that goal can be achieved. One interpretation is that there are numerous femininities and masculinities which are more multiple than singular or bi-polar expressions of gender. Miller (2009, p. 127) contends masculinity [and femininity] is best viewed not as a property or an essence, but as a series of contingent signs and practices that exercise power over both males and females, and to know it is to shift it, not just to love it. The processes and relationships through which males and females conduct their gendered lives should be the focus of researchers (Connell 2005). Males and females cannot be defined as being a certain gender, as their gender is a fluid aspect of their identity that is not constrained to one of a finite number of gender categories. However, outcomes for males and females differ, which subsequently introduces a challenging tension with conceptualisations of gender as subjectively fluid and yet objectively presenting as correlated to differing outcomes. The demand to formulate opportunities for females to successfully compete in sport then becomes both complex and highly disputed (Hall 1996; Hargreaves 1994). This is illustrated in debates over separatist sporting activities as opposed to mixed competitions, or with regards to the imbalance in media representations of females sport compared to males sport. As a clear reminder of the relevancy of gender equity in sport, the World Economic Forums Global Gender Gap Index shows that Australia is ranked twenty-third out of one hundred and thirty-five nations on a series of gender-based disparities, with a considerable decline in the relative progress (Hausmann, Tyson, Bekhouche and Zahidi 2011). 1.4 Research approach why studying touch football is important The research involves a case study of a locally-based senior mixed touch football competition. The next section provides a contextualisation for the research by describing key elements of touch football. A brief history of the game of touch football in Australia is also presented. 1.4.1 Key elements of touch football 1.4.1.1 Getting to the field of play  [1]   1.4.1.1.1 The playing field and the ball Touch football, also known as touch rugby or touch, is typically played on a rectangular field, and measures seventy metres in length from score line to score line  [2]  and fifty metres in width (Touch Football Australia 2007). The playing surface is normally grass however, other surfaces may be used. The game is played with an oval, inflated ball slightly smaller than rugby league and rugby union balls. The official ball size is thirty-six centimetres long and fifty-five centimetres in circumference (Touch Football Australia 2007). 1.4.1.1.2 Mode of play The aim of the game of touch football is for each team to score touchdowns  [3]  and to prevent the opposition from scoring (Touch Football Australia 2007). The ball may be passed, flicked, knocked, handed or thrown [but not kicked] sideways or backwards between teammates who can run or else move with the ball in an attempt to gain territorial advantage and score (Touch Football Australia 2007). Defending players prevent the attacking team  [4]  from gaining a territorial advantage by touching  [5]  the ball carrier or attacking players may initiate touches at which point, play stops and is restarted with a roll ball  [6]  (Touch Football Australia 2007). 1.4.1.1.3 Possession Unless other rules apply, the team with the ball is entitled to six touches prior to changing possession with the opposing team (Touch Football Australia 2007). Following the sixth touch or the loss of possession due to any other means, players of the team losing possession are to hand or pass the ball to the nearest opposition player, or place the ball on the ground at the mark  [7]  without delay (Touch Football Australia 2007). Attacking players who ask for the ball are to be handed the ball. Players are not to delay the changeover procedure. 1.4.1.1.4 Defending From the tap  [8]  for the start of the game or from a penalty, the defending team must be at least ten metres from the point of the tap (Touch Football Australia 2007). After making a touch, the defending team must retreat the distance the referee marks, at least five metres from the mark where the touch occurred, and remain there until the half  [9]  touches the ball (Touch Football Australia 2007). If a player does not retreat the entire distance the referee marked, they are considered offside. If a player makes an attempt to defend whilst inside this distance, they will be penalised. 1.4.1.1.5 Scoring A touchdown is awarded when a player [without being touched and other than the half] places the ball on the ground on or over the teams attacking score line and within the boundaries of the touchdown zone  [10]  (Touch Football Australia 2007). A touchdown is worth 1 point. The team who at the end of play has scored the most touchdowns is declared the winner. In the event of neither team scoring, or in the event of both teams scoring the same number of touchdowns, a draw is declared. 1.4.1.1.6 The half The half [or acting half] is subject to a number of restrictions that do not apply to other players. If the half is touched with the ball, the attacking team loses possession. The half cannot score a touchdown since trying to do so results in a change of possession. If the half takes too long to retrieve the ball, the referee can call play on and defenders are allowed to move forward before the half has touched the ball. 1.4.1.1.7 Commencement/recommencement of play Play is started by a tap at the beginning of each half, following a touchdown and when a penalty is awarded. The tap is performed by an attacking player placing the ball on the ground at or behind the mark  [11]  , releasing both hands from the ball, touching the ball with either foot a distance of not more than one metre and retrieving the ball cleanly (Touch Football Australia 2007). The defensive team must stay at a minimum distance of ten metres from the mark during the tap, unless they are positioned on their own score line. The defensive players can move after the ball carrier has touched the ball with their foot. The player who has performed the tap may be touched without losing possession. The attacking side must be positioned behind the ball when it is tapped. The attacking side may move the ball up to ten metres directly behind the given mark when taking a penalty tap. In this case, the defending side must still remain ten metres from the original mark, not the new mark . 1.4.1.1.8 Player attire All participating players are to be correctly attired in team uniforms. Uniforms typically consist of upper apparel [t-shirts or polo shirts], shorts [or briefs for female players] and socks with footwear (Touch Football Australia 2007). Shoes with screw-in studs are not to be worn by any player. Light leather or synthetic boots with soft-moulded soles are permitted, as long as individual studs are no longer than thirteen millimetres (Touch Football Australia 2007). All players are to wear an identifying number clearly displayed on the front or rear of the upper garment (Touch Football Australia 2007). Players are not to participate in any match while wearing any item of jewellery. Long or sharp fingernails are to be trimmed or taped. 1.4.1.2 Administration of touch football 1.4.1.2.1 The referee, line judges and touchdown zone officials, and the importance of the whistle Touch football must have at least one referee to officiate the game but most major games encompass one central referee and two sideline referees, who interchange roles constantly throughout the game (Touch Football Australia 2007). The central referee is the sole judge on matters of fact and is required to arbitrate on the rules of the game during play (Touch Football Australia 2007). The central referee may impose any sanction necessary to control the match and in particular, award penalties for infringements against the rules (Touch Football Australia 2007). Line judges and touchdown zone officials assist the central referee with tasks associated with sidelines, score lines and touchdown zone lines, and other matters at the discretion of the central referee. Their normal duties include indicating the ten metres distance for taps from a penalty, controlling substitutions, matters of backplay and other advice when sought by the central referee (Touch Football Australia 2007). The central referee must have a whistle to control the game. The start of play and a touchdown are signalled by long whistle blasts. A sixth touch, short whistle blast and the end of play, a long, fluctuating whistle blast (Touch Football Australia 2007). The standard whistle in Australia is the Acme Thunderer fifty-eight point five. 1.4.1.3 Rules of the game 1.4.1.3.1 Team composition and substitution A team consists of fourteen players, no more than six of who are allowed on the field at any time (Touch Football Australia 2007). In mixed competitions, the maximum number of males allowed on the field of play is three (Touch Football Australia 2007). The minimum male requirement on the field of play is one (Touch Football Australia 2007). Players may substitute at any time during the game in keeping with the interchange procedure (Touch Football Australia 2007, p. 10). There is no limit to the number of times a player may interchange, but substitutions can only be made from players who are registered at the commencement of the game (Touch Football Australia 2007). 1.4.1.3.2 Duration The match is forty-five minutes duration, entailing two twenty minute halves. There is a five minute half time break. When time expires play is to continue until the ball next becomes dead  [12]  (Touch Football Australia 2007). Should a penalty be awarded during this period, the penalty is to be taken. 1.4.1.3.3 Competition points Points are awarded in competition matches throughout the season. Teams are awarded three points for a win or a bye, two points for a draw and one point for a loss or a forfeit (Touch Football Australia 2007). 1.4.1.3.4 Penalty A penalty is to be awarded for an infringement by any player in line with the rules of the game (Touch Football Australia 2007). For example, a penalty is awarded to the non-offending team if the ball is passed forward, a touch and pass is committed, a player does not perform the roll ball at the mark, an obstruction is committed, a defending player does not retreat in a straight line to an onside position, a player is offside [on-field player or substitute], and a player acts in contradiction of the rules or spirit of the game (Touch Football Australia 2007). 1.4.1.3.5 Positions Teams are split into three positions, two middles [the central players], two wings [the players on either edge of the field] and two links [the players between the wings and middles]. 1.4.1.3.6 Grades Touch football is normally played in four different ability categories ranging from A grade [the most competitive] through B, C and D grade [the most inexperienced and usually the least competitive]. 1.4.2 The history of touch football in Australia  [13]   Touch football has evolved over time and is now considered to be a relatively fast-paced game. Changes in the structure of the sport have enabled the development of touch football to proceed. 1.4.2.1 From humble beginnings The game of touch football has humble beginnings. Historically applied as a training model for rugby league and rugby union teams over the summer months of the 1950s and 1960s, it was originally not seen as a sport in its own right (Touch Football South Australia n.d.). Progressively more people, explicitly males over twenty-five years of age  [14]  , were recruited to touch football teams and formal competitions were established (Touch Football Western Australia 2007; Townsville Castle Hill Touch Association n.d.). The popularity of touch football was credited to the game being considered relatively safe compared to rugby league and rugby union (Touch Football Victoria 2009). Touch football was also considered to be a social activity affording the prospect for participants and supporters to gather in a relaxed sport setting. The first formal game of touch football in Australia was reportedly held in South Sydney, a strong traditional rugby league area (Touch Football Western Australia 2007). The South Sydney Touch Association was formed in 1968 and convened a competition at Pioneer Park, Malabar in that year (Touch Football South Australia n.d.; Touch Football Victoria 2009). Not long after, the sport gained popularity in a number of inner-city areas of Sydney. Consequently, the New South Wales Touch Association was formed in 1972, incorporating the six regions of Southern Suns, Sydney Scorpions, Sydney Rebels, Sydney Mets, Hunter Western Hornets and Northern Eagles, and about 1,500 registered players (Shilbury and Kellett 2006; Touch Football South Australia n.d.). The first country association was in Wagga Wagga, which was formed in 1973, and womens touch football was first played at a representative level in 1979 (Touch Football South Australia n.d.; Touch Football Victoria 2009). Touch football appealed to ex-rugby players retired from the game through age or injury, and to players not willing or capable of playing rugby, but interested in playing a form of rugby (Touch Football South Australia n.d.; Touch Football Victoria 2009). An increased awareness in fitness in the adult population and the availability of former rugby players to take part, all served to develop the game (Touch Football South Australia n.d.; Touch Football Victoria 2009). 1.4.2.2 The development of a touch football identity Subsequently, touch football later appeared in numerous other New South Wales country regions before it became an official sport in Brisbane (Touch Football South Australia n.d.; Touch Football Victoria 2009). From there the game developed in every other State and Territory in Australia, and the Australian Touch Association, now trading as Touch Football Australia, was founded in November 1978 (Touch Football South Australia n.d.; Touch Football Victoria 2009). With the establishment of these associations, game rules came to be standardised. However, a formal rule book was not developed until late in 1980 (Touch Football Victoria 2009). In September 1981, the sport agreed to change its name from touch football to touch  [15]  , though to many the sport has also been known as touch rugby (Touch Football Australian Capital Territory 2007). A number of other changes resulted, such as the introduction of an official touch ball, which is notably smaller than both league and union balls, and the playing field size lessened, seventy metres by fifty metres (Touch Football South Australia n.d.; Touch Football Victoria 2009). Major rule changes occurred during this period, moving from seven players per side, which was implemented in 1980, to six-a-side (Touch Football Australian Capital Territory 2007; Touch Football Victoria 2009). Shortly after, the marker  [16]  was removed from the roll ball and the half was prevented from being able to s core a touchdown (Touch Football Australian Capital Territory 2007). Recently, the Australian Touch Association has rebranded the sport as touch football in an attempt to clarify that it is a sport with a ball (Touch Football South Australia n.d.). While tackles and scrums are not elements of touch football, Touch Football Victoria (2009) suggested employing the term touch rugby lends itself to an impression that the sport may be of a rough, physical nature, which is anything but reality. Touch football was originally played under rugby league laws without activities that comprised hard physical contact (Coffey 2010). The simplicity, skills-based motion and avoidance of full-contact, together with team [social and communication] benefits and minimum equipment requirements, have become distinctive elements of the modern game. 1.4.2.3 Elite competition emerges While the majority of touch football games are played at a local competition level, State level competitions have featured prominently in touch football. The earliest interstate clashes in touch football occurred when the Brisbane Touch Association representative team played the South Sydney team in 1973, 1974 and 1975 (Touch Football South Australia n.d.; Touch Football Victoria 2009). In the development of a standard set of rules for the sport, there has been a history of negotiated arrangements. For example, South Sydney wanted to have interstate matches played ten-a-side but Brisbane would not allow this, and the matches were played eight-a-side on a standard-sized rugby league field, measuring one hundred and twelve to one hundred and twenty-two metres by sixty-eight metres (Touch Football South Australia n.d.; Touch Football Victoria 2009). One of the games in the series was played as a curtain raiser to an interstate rugby league clash (Touch Football South Australia n.d.; Tou ch Football Victoria 2009). Touch football was played as a curtain raiser to the Sydney rugby league grand final in 1976 (Touch Football South Australia n.d.; Touch Football Victoria 2009). In December 1980, the inaugural National Championships were organised on the Gold Coast. This was essentially a contest between New South Wales and Queensland (Touch Football South Australia n.d.). Only three divisions were contested in that year, the open mens and womens, and over thirty-five mens, and included about 700-1,000 officials and players (Touch Football South Australia n.d.; Touch Football Western Australia 2007). By 1995, the National Championships provided for eleven divisions, together with 1,500 officials and players (Touch Football Victoria 2009). Development of the game meant that by 2005 the National Touch League [formerly the National Championships] catered for open, under twenties and senior divisions (Touch Football Western Australia 2007). 1.4.2.4 The rise of Internationalism  [17]   The success of the interstate clashes sparked interest in International competitions. In 1985, the Federation of International Touch was formed in Melbourne with Papua New Guinea, Canada, the USA, Fiji, New Zealand and Australia constituting the first members (Touch Football Victoria 2009). The first recognised International game was a test series played between Australia and New Zealand at the South Melbourne Cricket Ground on 23 March 1985 (Touch Football Victoria 2009). The game has continued to expand overseas with the last World Cup in Edinburgh, Scotland attracting teams from twenty-six countries, including Spain, South Africa, Japan, USA, Scotland, Singapore and the Cook Islands among others (Federation of International Touch 2011a; 2011b). Touch football was a National phenomenon based on participant skill and teamwork, with a degree of fitness thrown in at the elite level (Coffey 2010). The non-contact format that allows participation by all ages and both genders, even in mixed form has helped the sport to gain popularity. 1.5 Referee demand in touch football As mentioned earlier, the development of touch football and an associated playing code for the game has clearly established the role of officials as arbiters of the game. While there is clarity over the need for officials in the touch football competition and a playing code is well established, there is a level of ambiguity in the sporting practice which allows for negotiated changes to the playing environment and to particular interpretations of the rules of play. As is common in most sports, the performance of referees is a discussion point that can cause some levels of concern. Officiating in sports can be a difficult task, particularly in a fast-moving sport in which there is a level of interpretation and limited technological assistance at the local level to aid referees. At a sports administration level, the demand for referees at local sporting fixtures has frequently been mentioned over the past ten years (Touch Football Australian Capital Territory 2009; Touch Football Austr alia 2010b; Touch Football Victoria 2011). The unmet demand has led to the establishment of numerous broad recruitment and retention strategies. The success of these strategies varies within different levels of the sport. This thesis contends that touch football represents more than simply a new game and is in fact, an opportunity to better understand the gendered nature of sporting activities. The thesis sets about this issue through a case study of a locally-based senior mixed touch football competition. The aim is to gain a better understanding of the gendered nature of refereeing roles through personal interviews with participants, together with female referees in the competition. This gendered understanding will arguably facilitate better recruitment and retention strategies for female referees in touch football. 1.6 Structure of the thesis This thesis will explore perceptions and constructions of gender within the roles of touch football referees and suggest ideas for recruitment and retention. Chapter Two examines relevant theoretical concerns proceeding from the work of Norbert Elias and the post-structuralist works of Bruno Latour. It then reviews the literature regarding gender in sport. Chapter Three discusses the research approach that was utilised. It then describes the methods that have been chosen to explore the gendered nature of refereeing roles in touch football and the data analysis methods. It concludes by discussing ethical considerations in the research process and the limitations of the research. Chapter Four describes the findings from the research. The desktop research results are presented first. These results are presented in a quantitative format that empirically describes the gender breakdown of the sport. Second, the qualitative data that was obtained from the in-depth interviews with the eleven members of the touch organisation is presented. This data was compiled after the initial quantitative research was completed in the research process. Participant observation results are presented third. Chapter Five discusses the findings that resulted from the research. The significance of the findings is then discussed. Chapter Six, the conclusion, suggests directions for future research. CHAPTER TWO: Literature Review 2.1 Introduction In Chapter One the preliminary argument is proposed that touch football is a unique sporting practice entailing a continuum of social practices and values that are in many ways gendered. This chapter will broaden this discussion through an exploration of the sociological literature